STATE OF NEBRASKA 
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC f 
INSTRUCTION 

COURSES OF STUDY 

. ■■■ — FOR " ■ — ■ ■■ ■■■ ——— 

NORMAL TRAINING 
HIGH SCHOOLS 


COMBINED BULLETINS 

A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H 

(Revised) 


JOHN M. MATZEN 

State Superintendent 













































S IV2Q e • ol Vou-laUc-'n^sV-vu. < l \ \ 0 Y1 . 

COURSES OF STUDY 

FOR 

NORMAL TRAINING 
HIGH SCHOOLS 

Edited by 

ARCHER L. BURNHAM 
Director Secondary Education 




COMBINED 

BULLETINS 

( Revised) 




FRANK R. BEERS 


VERNEDA WHITNEY 


Assistant Director 
Secretary 



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THE CLAFLIN PRINTING COMPANY 
UNIVERSITY PLACE, NEBRASKA 



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LIBRARY of congress 

RECEIVED 

CSC 31 1924 


DOCUMENTS DIVISION 



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FOREWORD 


The training of teachers in the high schools of Nebraska has been 
in operation since 1907. The success of this work has fully justified the 
expenditure of money and effort entailed. It has been an incentive to 
young people to take up teaching and has meant much in the way of 
furnishing the schools with better trained teachers. During the school 
year 1922-23 there were enrolled in the normal training courses ir; 247 
high schools 3,379 juniors and 2,743 seniors. 

The purpose of these courses is primarily to train young men and 
women in the local high schools for teaching in the rural schools, and 
recognizes mastery of subject matter and employment of progressive, 
practical and scientific methods as prerequisites of effective teaching. 
An opportunity close at home to secure some special professional train¬ 
ing for teaching is thus afforded young people who are ambitious to 
teach, and who for various reasons are unable to go to a normal school 
or college. It is not the aim to create competition with the normal 
schools and colleges of the s.tate, and>.students who can are urged to at¬ 
tend the more advanced schools upon completiomof the high school course. 

. • • ,.. - o '* 

- ■ ) “ *' * 

Boards of education and superintendents df high schools in which 
this work is given should familiarize themselves with the requirements 
to be met as outlined in the normal training rules and regulations. Great 
care should be exercised in the selection of a normal training teacher. 
She should not only be well qualified by experience and training to teach 
teachers, but she should also have a knowledge of rural life problems. 
It is also imperative that strong teachers with special professional train¬ 
ing in their work be employed, not only in all the high school depart¬ 
ments but in the grades as well, if we are to have efficient schools for 
the training of teachers. Graduation from an approved teachers’ curric¬ 
ulum, tested teaching experience, and recognized personal and moral 
fitness determine the proper basis upon which teachers should be se¬ 
lected. 



It will be observed from a careful perusal of the complete bulletin 
that courses in detail indicating* the nature and scope of the work have 
been defined in the various normal training subjects for the guidance 
of superintendents and teachers in normal training high schools and in 
order that there may be uniformity throughout the state in giving this 
work. It is our purpose to continue these courses without material 
change; the same policy will also be followed with reference to the rules 
and regulations. This, we believe, will have the effect of stabilizing the 
normal training work, thus enhancing its value as a teacher-training 
factor in the state. It is hoped that these courses of study will be help¬ 
ful to superintendents, teachers and students of the high school normal 
training departments. 

These courses of study are the property of the state. Copies are 
« 

furnished gratis to each superintendent and normal training teacher by 
the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Each school will be 
charged with the number of copies sent to it. The careless loss or 
thoughtless destruction of a single copy may bring hardship and depriva¬ 
tion to some normal training student or teacher. 

JOHN M. MATZEN, 

August 1, 1923. State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 


PREFACE 

The Department has five definite purposes in issuing these courses 
of study. 

First, to define standards by which the work of the normal train¬ 
ing high school shall be judged. 

Second, to define the problems of teacher training in high schools 
in terms of activities, methods and subject matter. 

Third, to outline a survey from the teacher’s point of view of the 
subject matter in the elementary school curriculum. 

Fourth, to make this subject matter sufficiently comprehensive to 
afford rigorous academic training. 

Fifth, to define limits in the various subjects within which the county 
certificate examinations shall fall. 

The material of these courses is organized around a series of prob¬ 
lems and projects which are briefly outlined to assist the pupil in gath¬ 
ering the data for the solution of the problems. Related problems are 
appended to each main problem to throw further light upon its organ¬ 
ization and function. 

If students taking these courses are not lead to concentrate upon 
the solution of the problem in hand, they will lose themselves in the 
detail of subject matter and become confused and discouraged. Here 
must the skill of the teacher come in, directing the attack of the stu¬ 
dent so that he sees clearly the objective to be attained and the means 
and methods of attaining that objective. , 

It Will be evident to those reading these courses that they are not 
“self-teaching” outlines; they demand a live, wide awake, progressive 
teacher with some professional training and experience, and with a 
reasonable amount of good judgment and common sense. 

To all those whose names appear in this book as authors and co¬ 
authors of courses of study the Department officially and the editor 
personally expresses appreciation of service rendered. Only by their 
contributions has the book been made possible. The editor acknowl¬ 
edges large indebtedness to his assistant, Frank R. Beers. He has 
rendered valuable service in all lines connected with the making of the 
courses and their compilation in this book. Miss Verneda Whitney, 


6 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


l 


Secretary, has by her careful attention to details contributed much to 
form of outline and to clarity of English. Besides persons named, others 
have rendered service and given valuable advice in the preparation and 
revision of the matter herein contained. 

For any and all distortions in these courses occasioned by editing 
the undersigned assumes responsibility. 


Lincoln, Nebraska 
August 23, 1923. 


ARCHER L. BURNHAM, 
Director Secondary Education. 


PROFESSIONAL 

TRAINING 


By 

DEAN H. H. HAHN, Wayne, Part I 
ARCHER L. BURNHAM, Part II 
A. V. TEED, Wayne, Part III 


8 (5) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Professional Training 

Aims of Course—A Science of Teaching 

This course of study is an attempt to introduce the high school 
student to the modern practices and methods of teaching. While the 
course does not go into the minute details of the practices of teaching or 
attempt a refined analysis of the teaching process, it follows in general 
the method used everywhere in science. The steps in scientific method 
may be roughly indicated as follows: 

1. A problem to be solved. 

2. The collection of data for its solution. 

3. Classifying the data and abstracting from the classified collection 
those factors suggesting an answer to the problem. 

4. Guessing the answer suggested by the facts. 

5. Testing or verifying the guesses to find the right one. 

6. Using the right guess in the solution of other problems.* 

* % 

An examination of the course will show that it roughly follows the 

above outline. 

Each lesson requires the solution of a problem which problem arises 
out of an actual concrete teaching situation that the pupil observes. 
“The student who visits a class without a definite problem conscious in 
his mind rarely sees what it is hoped that he may. Often his attention 
is focused on the relatively unimportant and thus his observation may be 
a hindrance rather than a help.” “A model lesson is theory objectified. 
It is just as important for a young teacher to see the theories,” which 
are to be presented to him, “objectified, as it is for the child in the pri¬ 
mary class to have objects available when he is being taught the funda¬ 
mental facts* of arithmetic.”f 

True to the scientific method the data are gathered first-hand 
through observation lessons and from the best literature available. “Much 
of our knowledge rests on observation. It is one of the necessary ele¬ 
ments in the study of any science, and it is also a requisite in the pre¬ 
liminary preparation for the practice of an art. Its value in the study of 
the natural sciences has long been recognized, and its use is beginning 
to be extended in the investigation of the sciences of the mind. 


♦See LaRue—The Science and Art of Teaching. 
fMaxwell—The Observation of Teaching. 





PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(6) 9 


Skill in observation, as in any art, is acquired by practice. 

It requires patient endeavor on the part of the student to understand 
the means employed by a skillful teacher to realize the ends he wishes 
to attain in any class exercise. The observation of children, in order to 
know their reaction to mental stimuli, is valuable to one w r ho is to enter 

upon the work of teaching.The class room is the best and only 

place to study the responses of children when they are being taught. 

The young surgeon receives theoretical instruction in ligaturing an ar¬ 
tery, but it is not considered that this instruction is adequate. It is 
necessary for him to see competent surgeons perform the act before he is 
expected to do it himself. In the profession of teaching we are too prone 
to take it for granted, if we tell a novice how a class should be handled, 
that he will be able to execute in accordance with our ideal. We forget 
the gap between theory and practice, between the ideal and the end 
accomplished, between thinking how and doing.” The normal trainers 
need “a carefully outlined plan with definite and specific questions that 
are to be asked and answered about the recitation”.* 

The third step is taken when the observers write the answers to 
the questions addressed “To the Observers” and when they read the 
references and take notes. 

The guesses are made as to the solution of the problem at this stage. 
Then with these notes and the data collected during the observation 
periods before them, they should write out as good an answer as they 
can to each exercise. 

The trainers should be encouraged to express their own judgments 
about school affairs, but they must also know what other persons have 
to say. In class they should read their answers to one another and con¬ 
duct a genuine socialized recitation characterized by ideals of service 
and by the spirit of inquiry. In this way a student tests his guesses 
and verifies his conclusions. 

When the student attacks in this manner the problems incident to 
teaching he is making a scientific approach to the big problem of so 
relating theory to practice that theory will truly explain the practice he 
observes and later guide and control the practice he himself makes. He 
will then, it is hoped, use the right guess in solving other problems. 

In the section of the course devoted to methods and practices of 
teaching the inductive approach is made. Concrete practical situations 
with their facts and data are presented to the student and explanations 
required. After a body of theory has thus been evolved the approach 
changes to the deductive. In the section on “Principles and Types of 
Teaching” certain forms and abstractions are presented to the pupils for 
application to practical concrete school situations through lesson plans 
and the practice of teaching. Here, too, an attempt is made to introduce 


♦Maxwell—The Observation of Teaching. 









10 (7) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


the student to a crude psychology and a rough outline of the psycho¬ 
logical principles that govern the teaching process. 

To summarize: A body of theory is inductively developed. This 
body of theory is applied to the solution of new problems (sixth step in 
scientific method). Thus the scientific approach to the problem of train¬ 
ing high school pupils in the teaching process is made. 

The purposes of science are prediction and control. These purposes 
are realized if the student’s body of theory as inductively developed 
enables him to predict the outcome of certain class procedure—to write 
scientific lesson plans, and if his body of theory controls his practice 
teaching so that he is able to accomplish the thing he intended to accom¬ 
plish at the outset of the exercise. 


Aims of Course—The Art of Teaching 

Teaching is an art as well as a science—a process in which the most 
scientific procedure is also the most artistic, other things being equal. 
The normal training high school can no more hope to develop artists 
than it can hope to make scientific educators, but it can and should intro¬ 
duce the student to the “first crude beginnings” of the art he is to 
practice. For this reason suggestions are made for practice teaching 
(a minimum of twenty-four twenty minute periods is required of the 
normal training graduate). One learns to teach by teaching. It can be 
learned in no other way. 

*There are five more or less distinctive phases in the learning of the 
art of teaching: 

1. The writing of lesson plans. (Here the teacher in imagination 
goes over the anticipated process. In his mind’s eye he sees the process 
unfolding as he hopes to unfold it in actual teaching.) 

2. The observation of teaching. (When such observation has for 
its purpose the analyzing of the skills employed rather than the explain¬ 
ing of the principles involved.) 

3. Conscious imitation of teaching observed. (“The type of imita¬ 
tion that is meant here is the imitation of the application of principles 
to the problems of teaching rather than the mere mimicking of the 

specific acts of the expert teacher.Conscious imitation of correct 

teaching is a definite road to efficiency in teaching.”*) 

4. Intelligent following of specific directions and instructions in 
actual teaching. 

5. Actual teaching for the purpose of forming correct habits and 
making correct habits automatic. 


♦Nutt—The Supervision of Instruction, Houghton Mifflin Co. 





PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(8) 11 


The first three phases of this problem are all that can be attempted 
in normal training high schools. 

The teacher has problems other than those of instruction. He is an 
organizer and manager, and as such must meet and solve the problems 
of organization and management. For the normal trainers these prob¬ 
lems will be those of the rural school. Consequently the last section of 
this course is devoted to a survey of the problems of rural school man¬ 
agement. 


Specific and Detailed Directions 

It may seem to the experienced teacher that the directions in the 
first section of the course are too detailed and specific. It is the observa¬ 
tion of the undersigned that there are but few teachers that will be 
burdened or hampered by the detail, because most of the normal training 

teachers lack that broad professional training and the years of experi- 

* 

ence which give them such a grasp of the theory and practices of 
teaching as will enable them to proceed independently in the training 
of teachers. Such as are able to proceed independently the Department 
doubly welcomes; first, because of the value of such teachers to the 
schools in which they work, and second, because such teachers can by 
their cooperation and criticisms aid the normal training department 
in finding out what the really functioning minimum essentials of a pro¬ 
fessional training course are. And too, the investigation of any new 
field entails great loss of time and energy unless very specific directions 
are given the investigators. If the students attacking this course are 
not led to concentrate upon the solution of th.e problem in hand by 
specific detailed directions they will become confused and discouraged. 
To expect the already over-burdened normal training teacher to work 
out these details is too much. 

Acknowledgements 

The Department expresses its appreciation to Dean H. H. Hahn, 
Wayne State Teachers College, for that section of the course dealing 
with Observation, Methods and Practices of Teaching. He has given 
unstintingly of his time and energy in the making of this course in the 
hope that normal training in the high schools may be bettered thereby. 

In the revisions of this course Dean Hahn and the publishers of his 
“Projects in Observation and Practice Teaching” (The University Pub¬ 
lishing Company, Lincoln, Nebraska) have permitted the use of any 
and all parts of that publication that could be used to refine this course 
and make it more usable. 

For the section on Rural School Management the Department is 
indebted to Prof. A. V. Teed, Director of Rural Education, Wayne State 
Teachers College, and expresses its appreciation to him therefor. 


12 (9) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


For the section on Types of Teaching the undersigned assumes 
responsibility. 

Every teacher giving this course should be familiar with Maxwell’s 
“The Observation of Teaching”, and Nutt’s “The Supervision of In¬ 
struction”, both published by Houghton Mifflin Co., Chicago. 

Lesson Distribution 

Part I —Twenty weeks. 

Part II —Eight weeks. 

Part III—Eight weeks. 

Examinations 

The examinations in “Theory and Art” required for a county cer¬ 
tificate will be based on this course of study. 


A. L. B. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(10) 13 


PART I. 

Observation, Methods and Practices 

of Teaching 

INTRODUCTION* 


Organization of the Course 

In the organization of this course no attempt has been made at 
completeness or logical sequence. It is a course for beginners and for 
them a logical and complete treatment of the subject would be fatal. 
The observers’ problems are treated psychologically rather than logically. 
The course attempts merely these things: 

1. To make the problems of teaching real to the students. 

2. To motivate the study of the problems so that the students 
enter upon their solution purposefully and whole-heartedly. 

3. To lead the students to see and understand the problems of teach¬ 
ing in their practical rather than in their theoretical relations. 

Purpose of the Observation Work 

It is the purpose of the observation lessons outlined in this course 
to furnish a concrete basis for the study of the problems of teaching. 
Too often class discussions are entirely divorced from first-hand informa¬ 
tion of actual concrete school practices. Such discussions are bookish 
and theoretical and have little, if any, practical value to the student 
just beginning to study the teaching processes. The lessons outlined 
in this course will furnish the students with concrete experiences, by 
means of which they can interpret what they read and what they hear 
in terms of actual practices. There is a minimum of twenty-five of the 
observation lessons that require the work of a demonstration teacher. 
This demonstration work falls almost entirely on the grade teachers of 
the system. 

The Duty of Grade Teachers 

The teacher who demonstrates the observation lessons has a very 
important part. It is her work that furnishes the concrete experiences 
on which all discussions hinge and around which all readings must be 
made. It is absolutely essential that she make full preparation for this 


♦Adapted in part from Hahn’s Projects in Observation and Practice Teaching. 





14 (11) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


work. She should study the plans for the observation exercises in order 
to have clearly in mind what is to be demonstrated. In every lesson 
the procedure is definitely worked out, and any teacher who will make 
a study of any one of these specific lessons should be able to demonstrate 
to the observers the technique and methods implied in the observers’ 
problem. 

The department does not believe that any loss will accrue to the 
grade teacher or to her pupils because she takes a definite time from 
her otherwise regular schedule to demonstrate such lessons as are as¬ 
signed to her for demonstration to the normal training class. There are 
few teachers who cannot profit by a careful study of these problems and a 
careful working out with their classes the technique prescribed. The occa¬ 
sional change of a daily schedule can work no hardship (a daily program 
that is so inflexible as not to admit of frequent interruptions and neces¬ 
sary changes smacks of more machinery than spirit). The shifting of a 
quarter day section to any other quarter of the day is not an essential 
violation of program procedure. In fact, to repeat, there are few grade 
teachers in the state who will not profit far more by the study and 
demonstration of the lessons in this bulletin than by slavishly following 
any pre-arranged class schedule. 

Duty of the Superintendent 

The superintendent should at the beginning of the semester pre¬ 
arrange a schedule of the observation lessons to be demonstrated by each 
grade teacher and notify her of the lessons she is to demonstrate and 
the approximate time the demonstration is to be given. Later the teacher 
should be notified definitely some days in advance as to when the dem¬ 
onstration is to be made. 


Student’s Notebook 

Thru his observation of the demonstration lessons the normal train¬ 
ing student is to collect data to be used in the discussion of methods 
in the work of practice teaching and, it is hoped, in actual teaching 
when he leaves school. The form in which the observation notes are to 
be kept should, therefore, be permanent. The data recorded under Ob¬ 
servation should be complete and yet concise. Their value depends upon 
limiting the quantity. It is quality of notes rather than quantity of 
notes that is to be desired. Limiting quantity necessitates closer selec¬ 
tion and greater discrimination on the part of the observers. The note¬ 
book should contain the essential data in the fewest words. It should 
contain notes on what is observed, what is read, what is said in class 
discussions and, most important, the final solution of the observer’s 
problems. Teachers will find Hahn’s “Projects in Observation and 
Practice Teaching” (University Publishing Company, Lincoln) an ex¬ 
cellent book for this purpose. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(12) 15 


To Normal Training Instructors 

In connection with many of the observation exercises it is necessary 
that the members of the normal training class receive instruction that 
will prepare them for the observation. In some instances this prepara¬ 
tion consists of providing subject matter for the demonstration. The 
success of the observation work will largely depend upon how well the 
observers are prepared for the work. 

The normal training instructor should observe all the demonstration 
work along with the members of the class. He should take notes and 
write up his record book as he expects his students to do. Only in this 
way is he able to carry on the work as he should. 

The following steps should be taken in the order given in working 
out solutions to the student’s problems: 

1. Preparation for the observation work. 

2. Observation of demonstration teaching and taking of notes. 

3. Answering questions based on observation. 

4. Reading of references. 

5. Answering exercises based on references. 

6. Writing out the full solution to the student’s problem. 

7. Discussion of answers to exercises and solution to the student’s 
problem in class. 


Directions for Students 

The student should understand his observation problem before he 
enters upon his observation work. He should read the questions, which 
he is to answer afterwards, so that he may know what data to record. 

He should not attempt to answer any of the observation questions 
during the demonstration period. Pie should devote all of his time to 
observation and to jotting down such data as he deems necessary to 
answer the questions and to solve the problem. 

Answers must be complete and accurate, but must be expressed in 
the fewest words possible. In his answers the student should be specific 
and avoid generalities. In proportion as his answers are complete, brief, 
and specific, they are valuable. 

He should read the exercises (questions on discussion of methods) 
before he reads the references. He should keep in mind the observation 
problem. This will enable him to select the data he needs for the 
exercises and the problem. When he finds a significant fact he should 
make a note of it designating the page on which it may be found. Having 




I 

16 (13) PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 

read as many of the references as time permits, he should go over his 
notes carefully, keeping in mind the reference exercises and the observa¬ 
tion problem. He should then write the best answer he can to each 
exercise to be discussed in class. 

Having done his work carefully as outlined above, the observer 
should be prepared to write out a good solution to his observation prob¬ 
lem. His solution should tie together for him the helpful things he saw 
in his observation, the significant data he gathered from his references, 
and the worth-while things he heard in class discussions. Let him write 
it out as completely and as concisely as he can, remembering that the 
quality of his solution is a measure of the quality of his work. 

Reading—Reference Work 

It is an easy matter to make the reading end of a course like this 
too heavy. If a student spends the greater portion of his time in reading 
references, he must neglect other important features of the work. The 
maximum amount of time that can be reasonably devoted to the study 
of each problem outside of recitation periods is two hundred minutes. 
During this time the student is expected to write answers to the 
observation questions, read references, write answers to exercises 
based on references, and finally write out the solution to the observer’s 
problem. He should not spend more than eighty minutes in reading 
references. The references given are selected because they introduce 
variety of ideas, because they express modern viewpoints, and because 
they are concise and discuss specifically the problem in question. 

This course of study shall serve as a common denominator in 
formulating and reducing to similar terms the varied reading done by 
the normal training student. 

Suggested Lesson Distribution 

Physical Factors—One week. 

Teacher Activities—Four weeks. 

Pupil Activities—Two weeks. 

The Teaching of Elementary School Subjects—Thirteen weeks. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(14) 


17 


PHYSICAL FACTORS 

Observation Exercise 1 

Observers’ Problems: 

1. How does the lighting of a schoolroom condition the children’s 
work ? 

2. How do temperature and ventilation affect it? 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

1. Have the observers visit a schoolroom that is well lighted. 

2. Have the observers study carefully the heating and ventilating 
system in the school. 

To the Observers: 

1. From what direction or directions does light come into the room 
you visited? How near are the windows to the ceiling? How 
wide are the divisions between the windows ? 

2. What is the ratio of the light-admitting area of the windows to 
the area of the floor? 

3. What is the color of the ceiling? The side walls? The desk 
tops ? 

4. Describe the window shades used in the room. 

5. How is the room heated ? Test the temperature of the room four 
feet from the floor. 

6. Explain the principle used in the ventilation of the room. 

7. Judge the purity of the air in the room by the sense of smell 
and the feeling of closeness; also by the amount of fresh air 
that can come into the room in a given time. Is the teacher a 
“fresh-air crank”? 

8. Do the children sit erect, breathe deeply, and exercise frequently? 

Discussion of Theory 
Exercises 

1. Why should the light reflected from the book the child reads be 
the strongest light within his field of vision (in front of him) ? 

2. From what direction must light come into the room so that no 
shadows from the hand, head, or shoulders will be thrown upon the 
work ? 

3. How can cross-lights and shadows and glares be avoided in a 
schoolroom ? 


18 (15) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


4. If the side of the room opposite the windows is dark, what is 
wrong? Why is a square foot of glass near the ceiling worth as much 
for lighting purposes as three square feet forty inches above the floor? 

5. What should be the ratio of window space to floor space? 

6. Write a paragraph containing the important principles of light¬ 
ing involved in the five exercises above. 

7. If the lighting of a schoolroom is defective, what can the teacher 
do to remedy the defects (placing of new windows, use of prism glass in 
upper sash, movable seats, manipulation of shades, tinting of walls, 
etc.) ? 

8. Show that a poorly lighted room may be the cause of retardation, 
discouragement, and early elimination from school. 

9. Where would you seat a nearsighted child ? Why ? A farsighted 
child? 

10. Describe the different ways of heating a rural schoolroom. 
Which is the most effective and economical? 

11. The best school temperature is from 66 to 68 degrees Fahrenheit. 
What is the effect of a higher or lower temperature on the children’s 
learning capacity? Why is dry air at a temperature of 68 degrees in¬ 
jurious to children doing school work? “The atmosphere of Sahara is 
not nearly as dry as any air that has been heated 30 degrees without 
being moistened.” How can moisture be added to the air as it is being 
heated in the schoolroom? 

12. Explain the principle of the hot-air furnace; of the jacketed 
stove used in rural schools. 

13. Adequate ventilation of a schooolroom should supply it with 
seventy-two thousand cubic feet of fresh air per hour. If the area of the 
fresh air inlet is two square feet, the current of air passing through 
the inlet must move at the rate of seven miles per hour to supply the 
room with the required amount of fresh air. Estimate the area of the 
fresh air duct leading to the room you visited. At what rate must the 
current of air move through the duct to supply the room with enough 
fresh air? 

14. Why should teachers understand the heating and ventilating 
system in use in the school? 

15. Explain the best method of securing adequate ventilation 
through windows. 

16. Why is fresh air necessary for successful school work? 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(16) 19 


References: 

Bennett—School Efficiency, 28-36; 37-52. 

Dresslar—School Hygiene, 221-246; 133-9; 141-71; 181-92; 194-220. 

Shaw—School Hygiene, 170-199; 65-109. 

Terman—Hygiene of the School Child, chap, xiv; chap. x. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, 46-51. 

Gregg—Hygiene as Nature Study, 127-143. 

Hall-Quest—Supervised Study, 62-93. 

Observation Exercise 2 
(Any Grade) 

Observers’ Problems: 

1. What do seats and desks have to do with school efficiency? 

2. How do schoolroom decorations affect the work of the children? 

3. How should schoolrooms be equipped ? 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

1. Have the observers visit a room in which the best desks in use 
in the school are to be found. 

2. Have them also visit a room in which the decorations are about 
what they should be. 

3. Have them study the equipment of a schoolroom. 

To the Observers: 

1. Describe the pupils’ desks in the room you visited. In what ways 
are they adjustable? Were they properly adjusted for all 
pupils ? 

2. What proportion of the children are sitting with the small of the 
back curved backward and the internal organs compressed ? 

3. “A healthful sitting position demands that both hips and shoul¬ 
ders be pushed back and the small of the back be pushed for¬ 
ward.” Do the seats the children are using permit such a pos¬ 
ture ? Prove your statement. 

4. Have the teacher ask the children to take a deep breath and 
note the change of posture necessary to do so. 

5. “The correct position of the book places it perpendicular to the 
line of vision, with the light shining squarely upon the page, 
and fourteen to sixteen inches from the eye.” How many chil¬ 
dren read with their books in this position? Let each of the 


20 (17) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


observers take this position. Does the book need to be sup¬ 
ported ? 

6. What is the color of the walls of the room you visited? Has it 
a pleasing effect? In what way does it assist the lighting of the 
room ? 

7. How many pictures are on the walls ? Make a list of other 
things found on the walls of the room. Do the decorations har¬ 
monize with color of the wall? 

8. Which is preferable, bare walls or an excess of decorations ? 

9. Show that in the room you visited learning is or is not furthered 
by wall coloring and decorations. 

10. Are the textbooks clean and well preserved? 

11. What system does the teacher use in keeping a record of books 
in use by the pupils? How often and in what manner does the 
teacher inspect the textbooks? 

12. Make a list of useful apparatus and equipment in the room you 
visited, including arithmetic measures, maps, stereoscopic views, 
library, museum, phonograph, playground equipment, etc. 

13. Write a paragraph on the care of equipment. 

Discussion of Theory 
Exercises 

1. Name the essentials of a good school desk. 

2. Write a paragraph on the hygiene of sitting. 

3. Give arguments in favor of the statement that “no ventilating 
system can possibly be as large a factor in getting good air into the 
lungs of children as a seat which causes them to sit with chest expanded”. 

4. Describe the ideal coloring of the walls of a schoolroom. 

5. Why should the wall coloring and decorations be pleasing to the 
children ? 

6. Make a list of useful apparatus and equipment for a rural school. 

7. Make a separate list of maps needed in a rural school. 

References: 

Bennett—School Efficiency, 53-61; 33; 62-74. 

Dresslar—School Hygiene, 82-97; 80-81. 

Terman—Hygiene of the School Child, 81. 

Shaw—School Hygiene, 135-156. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, 55; 52; 56. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(18) 21 


TEACHER ACTIVITIES 

Observation Exercise 3 
(Any Grade) 

Observers’ Problems: 

1. How personal equipment conditions the efficiency of the teacher. 

2. To study the routine work of the successful teacher. 

3. To study fundamentals in school discipline. 

To the Observers: 

1. Cite facts to show that the teacher is well dressed for the work 
of teaching. 

2. Note the pitch, quality, and clearness of her voice. 

3. Cite instances to show that she possesses self-control. 

4. Cite instances to show that she is a sincere (honest and straight¬ 
forward) person. 

5. Cite instances to show that she can think quickly of the proper 
thing to do or say. 

6. Note the care she gives to heat, light, and ventilation. 

7. How does she call and dismiss classes ? 

8. Describe her method of distributing materials to pupils. 

9. Make a list of school habits you observed that save time and 
energy. 

10. What frequently recurring details are not yet reduced to habits? 

11. Cite instances to show that the teacher aims to maintain order 
through self-control on the part of the pupils. 

12. Cite instances to show that the pupils assume responsibility in 
the discipline of the school. 

13. Is it the teacher’s or the school’s approval that pupils most 
desire? Give evidence in support of your answer? 

14. What appeals for order did you hear the teacher make? Were 
they effective? 

15. In what ways did the teacher attempt to make disorderly conduct 
unpleasant for pupils ? 

16. Cite instances, if any, where the teacher used the “ounce of pre¬ 
vention” in maintaining order. 

17. Cite instances, if any, where the teacher stopped disorderly 
conduct on the part of pupils by giving them something orderly 
to do. 


22 (19) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


18. Make a list of the problems of discipline that you observed while 
in the room. What action did the teacher take with reference to 
each problem ? 

Discussion of Theory 
Exercises 

1. Make a list of the personal traits a successful teacher should 
possess. 

2. Make a list of personal habits that further the teacher’s work; a 
list of personal habits that hinder the teacher’s work. 

3. Which would you rather be, a teacher whose physical fitness is 
85% but who conserves her strength or a teacher whose physical fitness 
is 100% but who dissipates her strength? 

4. Grade the personal traits you named in (1) on a scale of 100. 

5. Write a paragraph of about twelve sentences on the Personal 
Equipment of the Successful Teacher. (Read references first.) 

6. What routine should the teacher follow in attending to the heat, 
light, and ventilation of the room ? 

7. How should a teacher in a rural school call and dismiss classes ? 

8. Why should the frequently recurring details be reduced to habits ? 

9. How would you distribute materials to pupils in a rural school ? 

10. The purpose of routine in school is to save time and energy. 
Describe school habits that save time and energy. Make a list of school 
habits that waste time and energy. 

11. Write a paragraph on the Routine Work of the Teacher. 

12. How can the teacher get the children to share with her the re¬ 
sponsibility of maintaining order? 

13. It is natural for children to desire the approval of the school. 
Explain ways in which the teacher can control individual pupils through 
the group. Give arguments to prove that it is or is not possible to 
discipline a school altogether on the basis of the instinctive tendency 
to court group approval. 

14. It is said that the teacher can stop misconduct in three ways: 
(1) by punishment; (2) by disuse; and (3) by substitution. Give an 
illustration of each method. What are the advantages and disadvan¬ 
tages of each method? Which is the best method by far? Why? 

15. Why is it necessary to study and understand the child before 
punishment is administered? 

16. Do the strongest or weakest disciplinarians punish the most? 
Why? 

17. Make a list of the rights of children that a fair-minded teacher 
is bound to respect. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(20) 23 


References: 

Bennett—School Efficiency, 356-70; 194-204; 206-214; 269-302. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, 60-72; 203-15; 
75-104. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 25-30; 105-132. 

Observation Exercise 4 
(Any Grade) 

Observers’ Problems: 

1. How to assign lessons. 

2. How may the teacher motivate the work of pupils? 

To the Demonstrator: 

1. Illustrate for the observers your ideal method of assigning les¬ 
sons. Assign lessons in problem form, making the problem 
sufficiently interesting to the children so that it will motivate 
the study of the lesson without artificial incentives. If possible, 
the problem should be a single sentence broad enough to tie 
together the principal facts of the lesson. Give directions or 
suggestions for the study of the lesson at the time of the as¬ 
signment. If references are given, specify pages. State defi¬ 
nitely the results you expect. Features too difficult should be 
explained. Assign questions that will help the pupils to test 
their answers. 

2. Be sure that your assignment of the lesson will be such that the 
children will have a strong enough motive or purpose to study 
the lesson. The driving power may be in the nature of the sub¬ 
ject matter. If so, use it. If not, supply outside incentives. 
The assignment must put PURPOSE INTO THE STUDY 
ACTIVITY for the majority of the class. 

To the Observers: 

1. Was the lesson assigned by pages, by paragraphs, by “next 
lesson”, by topics, or in the form of a problem or project? 

2. If the lesson was assigned in the form of a problem, what part 
did the pupils take in discovering and stating the problem? 

3. Give evidence to show that the assignment did or did not arouse 
the interest of the pupils and did or did not give them a strong 
incentive to study the lesson. 

4. At the time of the assignment what explanations, directions, or 
suggestions did the teacher give the pupils for the study of the 
lesson ? 

5. When was the assignment made? Altogether how much time 
was given to it? What per cent of the entire recitation period 
did it occupy? 


24 (21) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


6. What evidence can you give that the teacher intended that the 
assignment of the lesson should give the children a strong 
enough incentive for work ? 

7. Prove that the teacher did or did not expect the subject matter 
itself by virtue of the fact that it suited the interests and the 
abilities of the children to supply the incentive for work. 

8. By what other means besides choice of subject matter and as¬ 
signment of lesson did the teacher attempt to make the work 
seem worth while to the pupils and thus motivate their study? 

9. What was the strongest motive the teacher used? 

Discussion of Theory 
Exercises 

1. What is a problem assignment? Give the characteristics of a 
good problem. (See Observation Exercise 34.) What is the advantage 
of the problem assignment over any other assignment? 

2. If the project to be studied is a large one so that it will have to 
be broken up into a number of lesson units, after having studied several 
of the lesson units should the children be able to discover and state the 
daily problems ? 

3. Which is better, a problem consisting of a single sentence broad 
enough to tie together the principal facts in the lesson or a problem 
consisting of a number of questions? Why? 

4. Name five different things to do in the assignment of a lesson. 

5. The older view of the assignment was that it is to give the 
children something to do. What does the newer view of the assignment 
add to this thought? 

6. After reading the references write a paragraph of about twelve 
sentences on the Assignment of Lessons. 

7. Define motivation as used in education. 

8. What is the ideal assignment expected to do towards motivating 
the work? 

9. In what way may the recitation motivate the study activity? 

10. If a child feels the need of sending a written communication to 
a party to get something done, show that he is motivated for the study 
of capitalization and punctuation. 

11. Making the work satisfying to the children and proving that 
they are making progress is said to be an excellent method of motivating 
their work. Why? 

12. After having read the references write a paragraph on Motiva¬ 
tion of School Work. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(22) 25 


References: 

Bennett—School Efficiency, 217-18; 250-267. 

Wilson and Wilson—Motivation of School Work, 15-27; 28-42; 241; 

Chapters V to XI. 

Freeland—Modern Elementary School Practice, 16-8; 46; 244; 354-9; 
75-96. 

Earhart—Types of- Teaching, 80-92. 

Observation Exercise 5 
(Any Grade) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How can study be supervised? 

The school must be so organized that the teacher has a chance to 
supervise study, and when she is given a chance she must know 
what to do. In this lesson we give the observers information on 
both points. We have in mind the elementary school only, either 
rural or city, in planning this exercise. 

To the Demonstrator: 

1. Demonstrate the teacher’s duties as to the general supervision of 

study outside regular supervised study periods. 

a. Regulate the physical condition of your room as to tem¬ 
perature, ventilation, light, seating, so that the children are 
comfortable while they study. 

b. See to it that in their study activity the children do not 
violate fundamental laws and principles of learning, of think¬ 
ing, or of habit formation, with reference to concentrated 
attention, purpose, satisfyingness of the work, whole method, 
logical learning, stages in the thinking process (especially 
the trial and error stage), effect of exception, plateaus, etc.; 
(Talk to pupils about these things). 

c. See to it that the work is sufficiently motivated so that the 
children work willingly and wholeheartedly (accomplished 
through a proper assignment); show how the teacher can 
keep the pupils in their study-seats at their work while she 
conducts a recitation; show that you are able to detect pupils 
who need help; and show how much you can help them during 
the few minutes between recitations or at times when the 
class reciting does not need your immediate attention. 

2. Show what the teacher should do in supervising study during 

regular supervised study periods. 

a. It is practical in any graded school or in any rural school to 
use a recitation period for a study period as often as the 
teacher feels need for it. When the time comes for such a 
change the teacher should carefully assign the lesson as is 


26 (23) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


her usual custom and then say, “You may study the lesson 
this period. Tomorrow we will recite both lessons”. (In a 
forty-minute period the teacher can demonstrate “general 
supervision” of study in one class and specific supervision in 
the other.) 

b. Show that you have a twofold purpose in conducting this 
study exercise: (1) you want information as to how your 
pupils study and as to how much they are benefitted by your 
assignment, and (2) you hope to give assistance to individual 
pupils whose difficulties cannot be treated in mass teaching. 

c. Do the following as things worth while in the supervision 
of study: 

1. First round—Inspect the work of each pupil to make sure 
that he has the right idea of the problem, that he uses the 
study devices suggested in the assignment, that the re¬ 
sults already expressed are correct, that he at least makes 
a beginning in the right way, and to detect pupils who are 
likely to need help later on. 

2. If a number of pupils need the same caution or sug¬ 
gestion, after you have made the first round of inspection 
or as soon as you discover it, use a minute or two to give 
the assistance to the entire class. 

3. Second round—Visit only those pupils whom you de¬ 
tected as soon being in need of help. Encourage them 
forward, giving them what suggestions they need. Use 
individual incentives to suit individual pupils. 

4. Third round—Visit only the strongest third of the class. 
By this time over half of the period is gone and the fast 
workers are through with the common assignment. They 
'will need extra work. This round is for that purpose. 

5. Fourth round—Visit the average and lowest third of the 
class again. Guide them to correct conclusions or sum- 
marizations, helping them to select the data of greatest 
value. 

6. Do all of your work with individual pupils in a whisper 
or low tone. 

To the Observers: 

1. At what temperature were pupils required to study? Prove that 
the room was or was not properly ventilated. Was there enough 
light? What part of the window space was shaded? Were all 
pupils comfortably seated? Did you observe any physical defects 
in children that might interfere with their study? 

2. What per cent of the class was studying with concentrated at¬ 
tention? Did they work purposefully and wholeheartedly ? Cite 
instances to show that the study activity or the result of it was 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(24) 27 


or was not satisfying* to the children. Find out what directions 
the teacher gave the pupils at former times for memorizing, for 
silent reading, for problem solving. What directions did the 
children receive to assist them in the formation of habits, 
especially as to the effect of allowing exceptions and as to the 
nature and cause of plateaus ? 

3. Was the lesson assigned properly? Proof. What little devices 
did the teacher use in keeping pupils at their study work ? When 
did the teacher give pupils an opportunity to ask questions con¬ 
cerning difficult points in the study of their lesson ? In what 
ways did the teacher detect the pupils who needed help and how 
did she manage to help them? 

4. Describe in detail what the teacher did when she supervised the 
study of her class. What knowledge did she gain in the first 
round of inspection? Justify her explaining common points of 
confusion to the entire class, remembering that supervised study 
is a device to take care of individual differences. Did the teacher 
do the work for the pupils or merely inspire them to do their 
own work ? Proof. Why did the teacher give extra work of the 
same kind only more difficult to the highest third of the class 
instead of letting them do something else of their own choosing? 

Discussion of Theory 
Exercises 

1. Why is supervised study necessary? 

2. Make a list of the different things a teacher can do in the general 
supervision of study outside regular supervised study periods. Which 
of these are the most important? 

3. Make a list of the specific things a teacher should do who super¬ 
vises study during regular supervised study periods. 

4. Which is the most important part of supervised study, that which 
a teacher can do without using regular supervised study periods or that 
which the teacher can do only during such periods? Why? 

5. How can the rural teacher get an opportunity to specifically 
supervise study? 

6. What should pupils know concerning the laws of learning? Of 
thinking? Of habit formation? 

7. Why in the supervision of study should most of the time be 
devoted to the lowest third of the class? 

8. What is the greatest unsolved problem in connection with super¬ 
vised study? 

9. Justify the things you saw the teacher do while supervising 
study. 

10. After reading the references write a paragraph on Supervised 
Study. 


28 (25) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


References: 

Bennett—School Efficiency, 5-8; 186-7; 197-8; 224-6. 

Hall-Quest—Supervised Study, 1-15; 16-30; 31-61; chaps, on Super¬ 
vised Study. 

Dresslar—School Hygiene, 286-8. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, 152-8. 

Kitson—How to Use Your Mind. 

Whipple—How to Study Effectively. 

Dearborn—How to Learn Easily. 

Earhart—Types of Teaching, 192-219. 

Observation Exercise 6 
(Any Grade) 

Observers’ Problems: 

1. What part is the teacher to take in a recitation? 

2. What constitutes a good question? 

To the Demonstrator: 

1. Have a problem to be discussed by the class. Divide the subject 
matter necessary to solve the problem into topics or large units, 
placing as much responsibility on the class as possible. Have 
the pupils take a large part in determining what the important 
thoughts are, in what order they should be arranged, in giving 
the final summary and the final solution to the problem. Use 
the socialized recitation or at least its spirit. Make the reci¬ 
tation an incentive to better study work. It should be a means 
of motivating the study activity. 

2. The first question should have for its object the statement of the 
problem by one of the pupils. The second question should have 
for its purpose the statement of the first topic in the lesson. The 
topic when once stated should be discussed and summarized by 
the class without any further questions from the teacher (at 
least, this is the ideal). Another question is necessary to intro¬ 
duce the next topic, and so on through the discussion of the 
problem. The teacher’s questions should be large, topical ques¬ 
tions. Some memory questions may be necessary, but there 
should also be thought-provoking questions. Questions should 
be given the class by which they may test out their answer to 
the problem. Questions should be well distributed. 

To the Observers: 

1. State definitely the teacher’s aim in conducting the recitation. 

2. Write an outline of the teacher’s plan to attain her aim as it was 
revealed to you through the recitation. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(26) 29 


3. In conducting the recitation did the teacher use the question- 
and-answer method, the topical method, or the lecture method? 

4. To what extent did the teacher use the textbook or lesson plan? 

5. What part of the recitation period did the teacher consume in 
talking? 

6. Did pupils talk to the class or to the teacher? Why? 

7. To what extent did the teacher herself decide matters in the 
recitation such as what was important, what to remember, the 
order in which the subject matter was discussed, the summary 
at the end of the lesson, and the final solution to the problem ? 

8. If the teacher used socialized recitation, tell definitely the part 
she took throughout the class exercise. 

9. How many questions did the teacher ask during the recitation? 
What per cent of these questions could be answered by yes or no? 
What per cent suggested the answer the teacher wanted? What 
per cent were memory questions ? What per cent caused pupils 
to think ? What per cent were large topical questions requiring 
pupils to select the important facts in topics and to organize 
them as answers ? 

10. Did the teacher’s questions stimulate pupils to ask questions? 
What per cent of the questions were asked by the pupils? 

11. Record two of the best questions the teacher asked. 

12. Give the greatest number of questions the teacher asked any one 
pupil; the least number. In what order did she question the 
pupils ? 

13. Prove that the skill and judgment the teacher exercised in deal¬ 
ing with the answers to her questions did or did not inspire the 
pupils to greater effort. 

Discussion of Theory 
Exercises 

1. State three things the teacher should be able to accomplish 
through the recitation. 

2. What method of instruction should the teacher use in grades 
above the fourth? Why? 

3. W T hy should the teacher be independent of the textbook or lesson 
plan in conducting a recitation? 

4. Why should the class do most of the talking? 

5. Why should the pupil talk or recite to the class and not to the 
teacher ? 

6. How can the teacher get the pupils to assume responsibility in 
becoming interested in the recitation, in determining what are important 


30 (27) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


facts and the order in which they should be arranged, in making sum¬ 
maries and generalizations and in evaluating each other’s contributions ? 

7. Why is the socialized recitation an excellent means by which to 
attain the ends named in (6) ? 

8. Why is it necessary to have for discussion a problem that seems 
worth while to the children as a fundamental condition for a successful 
recitation ? 

9. After having read the references write a paragraph on the 
Teacher’s Part in a Successful Recitation. 

10. Name the characteristics of a good question; of a poor question. 

11. Why is it desirable that children should ask questions freely and 
frequently? Why should the teacher answer in all seriousness any 
question any pupil may ask ? 

12. Why should the teacher distribute her questions equally and yet 
promiscuously among the pupils ? 

13. Show that the skill and judgment with which the teacher deals 
with the answers to her questions has much to do in inspiring pupils to 
do their best. 

14. Write a paragraph on the Art of Questioning. 

References: 

Bennett—School Efficiency, 167-9; 171-5; 258-60. 

Robbins—The Socialized Recitation. 

Whitney—Socialized Recitation. 

Freeland—Modern Elementary School Practice, 15; 313-7; 347-54; 
389-401; 14. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, 91-2; 133-49; 
151-70; 93-4. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 86-104. 

Earhart—Types of Teaching. 

Observation Exercise 7 
(Any Grade) 

Observers’ Problem: 

1. How to find the standards on a given test that should be at¬ 
tained by a given class. (First step in self-supervision.) 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

Standard Tests are not infallible tests. But they are the safest, 
sanest and nearest perfect methods of testing knowledge and skill 
that we have and as such should be used in determining the classi- 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(28) 31 


fication and promotion of pupils rather than the individual teacher’s 
judgment. They do not, however, test those most important (though 
most intangible) products of education which may be summed up 
under the head of attitudes. 

The standard tests are especially valuable in the ungraded, un¬ 
supervised one teacher school. Such teachers rarely have super¬ 
visory help, and the standard tests can serve well (as will be seen 
later) as aids in self-supervision. They are particularly valuable 
to the beginning teachers in rural schools. 

1. As a means of standardizing work and classifying pupils in 
the rural schools. 

2. As a means of fair and proper grading of pupils. 

3. As a means oftesting specific abilities in subject matter. 

4. As a basis for correcting faulty instruction by teacher and 
faulty learning by pupils. 

5. As a means of measuring progress of instruction. 

6. As a means of bringing rural pupils in contact with achieve¬ 
ment of large groups of pupils. 

1. There is no observation work in connection with the first prob¬ 
lem. The observers, demonstrator, and normal training in¬ 
structor, under the direction of the latter, should study standard¬ 
ized tests until the observers are able to state what any class 
for which the test is intended should be able to do in terms of 
the test. The standards are either on the same sheet with the 
test or on a separate sheet. When ordering a test ask for scoring 
directions and tentative standards. The following tests, or any 
one of them, in the different subjects may be studied for this 
purpose: 

a. Standardized Reading Tests— 

*1. Ayres-Burgess’ Scale for Measuring Ability in Silent 
Reading. Russell Sage Foundation, New York. (Tests 
speed and ability to follow directions.) 

2. Haggerty-Noonan Achievement Examination in Reading 
(Sigma 1). For grades 1 to 3. Published by World Book 
Company, Yonkers, New York. 

3. Gray’s Oral Reading Test. W. S. Gray, University of 
Chicago, Chicago, Ill. 

4. Gray’s Silent Reading Test. W. S. Gray, University of 
Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Tests speed, reproduction, and 
ability to answer specific questions.) 


Minimum Requirement* : All tests marked * and either test marked t. 




32 (29) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


5. Fordyce’s Silent Reading Scale. University Pub. Co., 
Lincoln, Nebr. (Tests ability to answer specific questions.) 

.6. Monroe’s Silent Reading Tests. W. S. Monroe, University 
of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Tests speed and ability to 
answer specific questions.) 

7. Kansas Silent Reading Test. Kansas State Normal 
School, Emporia, Kas. (Tests speed and ability to answer 
specific questions.) 

8. Thorndike’s Visual Vocabulary Scale. Bureau of Publica¬ 
tions, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York 
City. 

9. Thorndike-McCall Reading Scale. Teachers College, 
Columbia University, New York City. (Tests ability to 
answer specific questions and to follow directions.) 

b. Standardized Arithmetic Tests— 

*1. Courtis’ Standard Research Tests in Arithmetic, Series 
B. S. A. Courtis, 82 Eliot St., Detroit, Mich. 

2. Woody’s Arithmetic Test (Series A). Bureau of Publica¬ 
tions, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York 
City. 

3. Monroe’s Standardized Reasoning Test. W. S. Monroe, 
University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. 

4. Monroe’s Diagnostic Tests. W. S. Monroe, University of 
Illinois, Urbana, Ill. 

5. Starch’s Arithmetical Scale A. Daniel Starch, Madison, 
Wis. 

6. Stone’s Reasoning Test. Teachers College, Columbia 
University, New York City. 

c. Standardized History Scales— 

fl. Hahn’s History Scales. H. H. Hahn, Wayne State 
Teachers College, Wayne, Nebr. 

2. Harlan’s Test of Information in American History. 
Charles L. Harlan, College of Education, University of 
Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. 

3. Buckingham’s Test. State Department of Public Instruc¬ 
tion, Madison, Wis. 


Minimum Requirements: All tests marked * and either test marked t- 




PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(30) 33 


d. Standardized Writing Scales— 

1. Ayres’ Writing Scale (Gettysburg Edition). Russell Sage 
Foundation, New York City. 

2. Freeman’s Chart for Diagnosing Faults in Handwriting. 
Houghton Mifflin Co., Chicago, Ill. 

3. Thorndike’s Writing Scale. Bureau of Publications, 
Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. 

4. Palmer Standards (Grades 1 to 8). The A. N. Palmer 
Company, Palmer Building, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. 

e. Standardized Geography Scales— 

fl. The Hahn-Lackey Geography Scale (Grades 4 to 8). 
Hahn-Lackey, Wayne State Teachers College, Wayne, 
Nebr. 

2. Courtis’ Standard Tests in Geography for States and 
Important Cities of the U. S. S. A. Courtis, Detroit, 
Mich. 

3. Buckingham’s Geography Test. B. R. Buckingham, 
Madison, Wis. 

• 

4. Starch’s Geography Tests (Series A). Daniel Starch, 
Madison, Wis. 

f. Standardized Spelling Scale— 

*1. Ayres’ Spelling Scale. Russell Sage Foundation, New 
York City. 

v' « 

2. Monroe’s Timed-sentence Spelling Test. W. S. Monroe, 
University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. 

g. Standardized Composition Scales— 

1. The Willing Composition Scale. Bureau of Educational 
Research, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. 

2. Starch’s Punctuation Scale A. Daniel Starch, University 
of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 

3. Charters’ Diagnostic Tests in Language and Grammar. 
Bureau of Educational Research, University of Illinois, 
Urbana, Ill. 

4. Hillegas’ Composition Scale (Nassau Edition). Teachers 
College, Columbia University, New York City. 

Minimum Requirements: All tests marked * and either test marked f. 









34 (31) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


5. Trabue’s Language Scales. Bureau of Educational Re¬ 
search, University of Nebraska. 

6. Harvard-Newton Composition Scale. Harvard University 
Press, Cambridge, Mass. 

7. Clapp Correct English Test. Frank S. Clapp, University 
of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 

% 

Observation Exercise 7a 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to give and score a standard test and determine the standard 

of the class tested. (The second step in self-supervision.) 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

1. Having taught the observers how to find the standards for the 
different grades from the various standardized tests and scales, 
you will next teach them how to test a class to determine 
whether its average is below, equal to, or above the standard. 

*a. In the presence of the observers give the Ayres-Burgess 
silent reading test to one of your classes, following the 
directions given on the test sheet. Under the direction of the 
normal training instructor (or demonstrator) r have each 
observer score the answers and find the class average ac¬ 
cording to the directions that come with the test. If the 
observers differ in their class averages, find the average of 
their averages for the final class score. Is this average 
below, equal to, or above the standard for this test? 

. *b. In a manner similar to that described in (a), test one of your 

grade classes in arithmetic by using the Courtis tests. Have 
the observers find the class average as before and compare it 
with the standard. 

yc. Have a teacher in the eighth grade give a test of five exer¬ 
cises taken from column L of the Hahn History Scale for the 
Eighth Grade. Have the observers score the answers as 
before and find the class average. Is this average below, 
equal to, or above the Hahn standard ? Locate your average 
class score on the graph shown for Step L. How many of the 
original 43 schools are below your average ? How many 
above ? 

d. Obtain a sample of the writing of each pupil in any one 
grade from the fifth to the eighth. Have each observer 
score the samples by using the Ayres’ Writing Scale. Find 
the average of the observers and compare this with the 
Ayres standard. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(32) 35 

fe. Have a teacher give a test of five exercises selected from 
column O of the Hahn-Lackey Geography Scale to a class in 
any one grade from the fifth to the eighth. Let each ob¬ 
server find the class score. Score the answers which differ 
as much as 8% or more a second time, observing more closely 
the directions for scoring. Find the average of your class 
scores and compare this with the Hahn-Lackey standards. 

*f. Have a teacher test a class in spelling in the presence of the 
observers by using twenty words from column M of the 
Ayres’ Spelling Scale. Let the observers find the class score 
and compare it with the Ayres standard. 

2. The following arrangement of class scores and standards will 
enable the observer to tell at a glance whether the class tested 
is below, equal to, or above standard in any one or all of the 
subjects: 


Arithmetic Class standard. Final class score. 

Silent reading Class standard. Final class score. 

Spelling Class standard. Final class score. 

Writing Class standard..... Final class score. 

History Class standard. Final class score. 

Geography Class standard. Final class score. 


3. There is no time to devote to the discussion of theory. It will 
take both the study and recitation periods to score papers and 
work out class scores. Questions should be answered as they 
come up in connection with the scoring. The normal training 
instructor is referred to Monroe’s Measuring the Results of 
Teaching, published by Houghton Mifflin Co., as a most helpful 
book on this subject. If now the observers have learned to test 
a class to determine whether its average is below, equal to, or 
above the standard, THEY HAVE TAKEN THE SECOND STEP 
IN SELF-SUPERVISION, the first step being the ABILITY TO 
OBTAIN FROM STANDARDIZED TESTS STANDARDS 
SHOWING WHAT CLASSES IN THE VARIOUS GRADES 
SHOULD BE ABLE TO DO. Be sure the observers have ac¬ 
quired these two abilities before they begin the third step. 

Observation Exercise 8 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to use the standardized tests for diagnostic purposes. (The 
third step in self-supervision.) 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

1. If the work of a class in a particular subject is decidedly below 
standard, in order to improve the work the teacher must know 


Minimum Requirements : All tests marked * and either test marked t. 



















36 (33) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


the reason. The use of a standardized test for the purpose of 
determining the cause of the weakness is called its diagnostic 
use. This ability on the part of the observers will be developed 
next. 

*2. Have the observers go back to their data on silent reading. They 
scored the answers (1) as to comprehension or meaning of what 
was read and (2) as to rate of reading. Do their scores show 
weakness in comprehension ? If so, have them study the wrong 
answers children gave to find out whether the lack of com¬ 
prehension was due to a lack of vocabulary (not knowing what 
the words meant). Have them record all the evidence they can 
find of a lack of vocabulary. If doubtful, have them ask pupils 
to define some of the words and use them in written sentences. 
Also test the vocabulary of the pupils by a test from Thorndike’s 
Visual Vocabulary Scale. Do the children show weakness in 
vocabulary ability? Have them examine the answers and ques¬ 
tions for a second weakness. Children might know the meaning 
of the words and not be able to sense the meaning of sentences 
as wholes. They must be able tp relate the words and phrases 
so thaf the whole has meaning. Is there any evidence of this 
type of weakness ? A third factor might enter into the cause 
of lack of comprehension. Can the observers find any evidence 
that the wrong answers are partly due to a habit of guessing 
or carelessness or giving as an answer the idea suggested by a 
word or phrase in the question and not by the question as a 
whole? Can the observers detect any other cause for the low 
score in comprehension ? What, then, are the probable causes 
of lack of comprehension on the part of the class in question 
and what is the remedy for each case ? If the class is below 
standard in rate of reading, what causes are in evidence ? What 
remedies have they to offer? (See Observation Exercises 14-19.) 

*3. Go back to the arithmetic test and have the observers make a list 
of the kinds of examples the children missed in the test. Give 
Monroe’s Diagnostic Tests to this class and have observers check 
the types of examples missed. Have the observers prepare a set 
of practice examples to develop each ability in which the class 
is weak. (See Observation Exercise 21.) 

f4. Have the observers go back to the history test and make a list of 
the weaknesses the test reveals. Have the observers select three 
exercises from the Hahn History Scale to test mere memory 
ability, three to test thinking ability, three to test time relations, 
three to test place relations, three to test cause-and-effect rela¬ 
tions. Give this test of fifteen exercises to the same class that 
took the first test. Have the observers score each group of three 
exercises separately and compare the average the class made on 


Minimum Requirements: All tests marked * and either test marked t. 



PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(34) 37 


each group with the scale average. In what abilities is the class 
weak? Have them suggest remedies. (See Observation Exer¬ 
cises 37-40.) 

5. Have the observers go back to the samples of writing. Is the 
slant uniform ? Is the spacing between letters uniform ? Be¬ 
tween words ? Are the beginning and ending strokes of words 
uniform and correct? Are the heights of letters correct? Ar« 
the forms of letters fair? Do the children use finger or 
muscular movement ? Have observers make a list of writing 
abilities the class lacks. How may each ability be developed ? 

f6. Have the observers select three exercises from the Hahn-Lackey 
Geography Scale to test mere memory, three to test the ability to 
reason, three to test the constructive imagination, three to test 
place relations, three to test a knowledge of home geography. 
Give this test of fifteen exercises to a seventh grade class. Have 
the observers find the class average on each group separately and 
compare it with the scale average. In what abilities of geography 
are the children weak ? What is the remedy for each weakness ? 

*7. Have the observers study the misspelled words in the spelling 
test. Are the misspelled words long or short? Are they words 
that are commonly mispronounced ? Do they spell as they sound ? 
Does the misspelling indicate that the children spell by syllables ? 
In how many places in each word is the spelling wrong? Make 
a list of the causes of misspelled words. Suggest remedies. 

8. Have the observers go back to the samples of compositions and 
determine what the children do not know that they should know 
about the use of capital letters, the use of punctuation marks, 
the use of correct forms of pronouns, verbs and adjectives, the 
use of clear, unified sentences, and about writing a paragraph. 
Give Charters’ Diagnostic Test to the same class. Make a list of 
the weaknesses of this class in composition. What suggestions 
for remedying the weaknesses have they to offer? (See Observa¬ 
tion Exercise 29.) 

9. If the observers fully understand diagnostic work, they have ac¬ 
quired the third ability necessary to supervise their own teach¬ 
ing. They have learned (1) how to get their class goals from 
standardized tests, (2) how to determine whether a class has 
reached the goal or is below or above it, and (3) how the causes 
for weaknesses may be determined and what remedies to apply. 
No supervisor has ever done more definite supervision than this. 
No more important work than this can be done in the training of 
teachers, and especially in the training of rural teachers; for they 
have less supervision than any other teacher and therefore have 
greater need of the ability of self-supervision. 

MinimunLRequirements: All tests marked * and either test marked f. 





38 (35) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


References: 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, 53-96; 118-31; 138-52; 
157-74; 190-202; 212-34; 245-54. 

\ 

Hahn & Lackey—Teaching Geography and Measuring its Results. 
Hoyt & Peet—Everyday Arithmetic. 

Survey of St. Louis Public Schools, Part 2. 

Observation Exercise 9 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to use the standardized tests for the study of individual 
differences among children. (Fourth Step in Self-Supervision.) 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

1. Have observers, on the basis of the tests given classes in the 
various subjects, arrange the pupils along the scale intervals in 
the order of their scores as follows: 
a. Reading (Arrange for Monroe’s Tests.) 

Scale intervals for comprehension 

2 7 12 17 22 27 32 37 42 47 52 57 62 67 72 77 82 87 92 97 100 

(Number of pupils on line above) 

Scale intervals for rate 

5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 125 135 145 
(Number of pupils on line above) 

(In the above scale the interval 2 means any score from 0 to 4; inter¬ 
val 7 means 5 to 9; interval 5 means 0 to 9; 15 means 10 to 19, etc.) 

*b. Arithmetic (Arranged for Courtis’ Tests.) 

Addition: Number of rights 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 


(Number of pupils on line above) 

(Same arrangement for subtraction, multiplication, and division.) 

c. Composition (Arranged for the Willing Scale.) 

Errors per 100 words 

0-2.9 3-5.9 6-8.9 9-11.9 12-14.9 15-17.9 18-20.9 21-23.9 24-26.9 27-29.9 


(Number of pupils on line above) 

Story value . 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 

Number of pupils... 

(20 means 15 to 24.9; 30 means 25 to 34.9; etc.) 
fd. History (Arranged for the Hahn History Scale.) 


Minimum Requirements: All tests marked * and either test marked f. 








0 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING (36) 39 

Scale intervals 

0 1 2 4 6 8 12 16 23 27 34 42 50 58 66 73 79 84 88 92 94 96 98 99 100 


(Number of pupils on line above) 

(Each interval reaches five tenths of a step on either side.) 
e. Writing (Arranged for Ayres’ Scale.) 

Quality of writing. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 

Number of pupils. 

Rate of writing. 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 

Number of pupils. 

ff. Geography (Arranged for Hahn-Lackey Scale.) 

Scale intervals 

0 1 2 4 6 8 12 16 23 27 34 42 50 58 66 73 79 84 88 92 94 96 98 99 100 


(Number of pupils on line above) 

(Each interval reaches four tenths of a step on either side.) 

*g. Spelling (Arranged for Ayres’ Scale.) 

Scale intervals 

0 1 2 4 6 8 12 16 23 27 34 42 50 58 66 73 79 84 88 92 94 96 98 99 100 


(Number of pupils on line above) 

Discussion of Theory 
Exercises 

1. What individual differences do you find among pupils in reading 
so far as this test shows ? In this test what relation exists between 
comprehension and rate of reading? While the slowest reader reads 
through an assignment the fastest reader could go over the assignment 
how many times? While the slowest reader reads one book the fastest 
reader reads how many? 

2. Are the individual differences among children in arithmetic as 
large as in reading? What relation exists between rate and accuracy 
in the four fundamental operations ? Which pupils should have longer 
lessons? 

3. So far as these tests show do children differ as much in history 
as they do in reading and arithmetic? Which of the children should do 
outside reading for the class in the way of special reports ? Which pupils 
in the class should determine the length and difficulty of the lessons? 
How could you keep the highest third busy? How could the lowest third 
be kept from becoming discouraged? 

4. How do individual differences among children in geography agree 
with those in comprehension and rate of reading? With those in arith¬ 
metic? With those in history? What extra work in geography could 
be assigned to, the strongest pupils so that both they and the class would 

Minimum Requirements: All tests marked * and either test marked t. 












40 


(37) 


/ 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


be benefitted thereby? Which pupils in this class could do the work of 
the class in the grade ahead? 

5. Do children differ as much in composition as they do in other 
subjects ? Why are the individual differences in a composition class easily 
taken care of? How would you keep the weakest pupils in composition 
from becoming discouraged ? 

6. Why are the individual differences found in a writing class or 
even a spelling class not so serious as those in content subjects? 

7. How does supervised study help to take care of the individual 
differences? (See Observation Exercise 5.) 

8. Explain all the devices that are now being tried in schools to 
take care of the enormously large individual differences among children 
in the same class; such as, supervised study, assignments, skipping, sec¬ 
tioning classes, Batavia system and its modifications, individual instruc¬ 
tion, etc. 

9. Of the methods explained in (8) which are the most practical in 
rural schools ? 

References: 

Pittman—Successful Teaching in Rural Schools, 27-36. 

Bennett—School Efficiency, 127-136. 

Freeland—Modern Elementary School Practice, 313-40; 341-67. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, 118-24; 175-6. 

Hall-Quest—Supervised Study, 31-61. 


PUPIL ACTIVITIES 

^ * 

Observation Exercise 10 
(All Grades) 

Observers’ Problem: 

What traits or tendencies are common to ALL children? 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

1. Have the observers carefully observe children on the playground, 
on the street, at home, at their study seats, and in recitations, 
and on the basis of their observation select from the following 
list the traits or tendencies COMMON TO ALL: to study; to 
be physically active; to be obedient; to be curious; to play; to 
be truthful; to imitate; to be mentally active; to read; to repeat 
what is pleasant; to laugh; to be clean; to stop (inhibit) what is 
unpleasant; to fight; to have high ideals; to tease; to be curious; 
to work; to be impulsive; to be industrious; to fear; to be kind; 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(38) 41 


to be sympathetic; to be saving; to handle or manipulate things; 
to show off; to be timid; to make things; to study grammar; to 
be bashful; to want approval of others; to be alone; to collect 
things; to be helpful; to be selfish; to be cruel; to be fair; to 
be open minded; to investigate on one’s own accord; to compete 
with others; to be moral; to be stubborn; to get angry; to be 
untruthful. 

To the Observers: 

1. Examine your list of like traits or tendencies and divide it into 
two lists, (a) Traits due to heredity and (b) Traits due to 
training. 

2. Which of the above traits or tendencies are common to children 
of about the same age, but not common to children of all ages ? 

3. Which of the above traits are common to boys but not to girls? 

4. Are children as much alike in mental and emotional traits as they 
are in physical traits ? Cite instances to prove your answer. 

5. Study children of the same family. In what respects are they 
more alike than children of different families? How do you 
explain this ? 

Discussion of Theory 
Exercises 

1. Name all the causes that tend to make children alike. 

2. Are the tendencies in which children are alike of equal strength 
in all children ? Does this fact make the work harder for teachers ? 
Why? 

3. Where the children have the same tendency to act does the same 
cause (situation) make them all act? Can you describe the situation 
(cause) that makes all children curious? The situation that makes them 
all imitate"? The situation that makes them all compete ? The situation 
that makes them all angry? 

4. When the same situation makes all children act, do they act in 
exactly the same way? What makes the action (response) in each child 
a little different? Does this fact make the work of teachers harder or 
easier? Why? 

5. In the light of your discussion in (3) and (4) can it be said that 
the tendencies children inherit may be thought of as specific responses 
in specific situations ? 

6. Why are some tendencies common to children of about the same 
age but not common to all children? Do the tendencies come and go 
suddenly? Cite evidence to support your view. What difference does 


42 (39) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


it make to the work of the teacher whether the tendencies come and 
go suddenly or gradually (or perhaps not at all) ? (Usually discussed 
under transitoriness of instinct.) 

7. If both parents of a child are tall is the child likely to be tall ? 
If both parents have good mathematical ability is the child likely to have 
good mathematical ability? In what way may the study of the family 
traits help the teacher? 

8. After reading the references write a paragraph of about twelve 
sentences on Common Tendencies in Children. 


References: 

Bennett—School Efficiency, 250-67. 

Wilson and Wilson—Motivation of School Work, 41; 45-53; 220-4. 
Freeland—Modern Elementary School Practice, 96; 97-111. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, 106-116. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 74-78; 78-81. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 533-543. 


Observers’ Problem: 


Observation Exercise 11 
(All Grades) 


How do children in the same class differ from each other? 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

1. Have the observers study the physical traits of children in the 
same class for the following data: 

a. Fill in blank spaces below— 

(1) Age in years 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 

No. of pupils .. 

(2) Wt. in pounds 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 

No. of pupils . 

(3) Ht. in inches 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 

No. of pupils ... 

b. Pupils who weigh about the same 

Age in years 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 
No. of pupils . 

c. Pupils who are about the same in height 

Age in years 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 
No. of pupils . 


f 


d. Names of pupils who are unusually small; unusually large. 







PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(40) 43 


e. Names of pupils who are two years younger than the 
average of the class; two years older. Make a special study 
of these pupils. 

f. Record any evidence indicating undue fatigue, nervousness, 
chorea, stuttering or stammering. 

g. Record symptoms of adenoids (mouth breathing, drooping 
eyelids, tired expression). 

h. Make a list of the names of pupils who read with books too 
near or too far away from their eyes. With the assistance 
of a teacher test the eyes of four children according to the 
directions sent out by the State Board of Health and have 
observers make out the required reports. 

i. Do you observe any inattentiveness, slowness of response, 
misunderstanding of oral directions, strain of attention, 
which may indicate inability to hear well? With the assist¬ 
ance of a teacher test the hearing of three children according 
to the directions sent out by the State Board and have the 
observers make out the required report. Do likewise with 
reference to the nose and throat and teeth. 


2. Have the observers study the mental traits of children in the 
same class for the following data: 

a. Select nine pupils at random and place their names in the 


proper column 

below— 


Unusually Slow 

Mental Quickness 
Average 

Unusually Quick 

Usually Inaccurate 

Mental Accuracy 
Average 

Unusually Accurate 

Unusually Inactive 

Mental Energy 
Average 

Unusually Active 

Flighty 

Degree of Attention 
Average 

Sustained 

Starts Nothing 

Degree of Initiative 
Average 

Ready with New Plans 

Unusually Deficient 

Thinking Power 
Average 

Unusual Ability 


b. Draw lines connecting the six positions of each name, using 
a different kind of line for each name. Do these lines inter¬ 
sect at random or are they for the most part parallel? 


3. Have the observers study the social and moral traits of children 
in the same class for the following data: 


44 (41) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


a. Have the observers study the same children they studied be¬ 
fore and have them place the names of the nine children in 
the proper column below— 


Refuses to Co-operate 

Ideals of Service 
Average 

Wants to be Helpful 

Usually Unfair 

Degree of Fairness 

Average 

• 

Unusually Fair 

Degree of Aggressiveness 


Shy and Meek 

Average 

Bold and Aggressive 

Usually Disobedient 

Obedience 

Average 

Unusually Obedient 

Often Untruthful 

Truthfulness 

Average 

Always Truthful 

Often Opposes Group 

Love of Approval 

Average Controlled Fully by Group 

Self-depreciative 

Degree of Assertiveness 
Average 

Self-confident 


b. Draw lines connecting the seven positions of each name as 
above. Do these lines intersect or are they mostly parallel? 


c. Are there any striking relationships between the physical, 
mental, and moral traits observed? State them. 


Discussion of Theory 
Exercises 

1. Name all reasons you can think of why children of different 
ages should be found in the same class. Which of these reasons apply in 
the class observed ? What are the disadvantages of too large a variation 
in age among children in the same class ? 

2. Why should teachers make a special study of children who are 
unusually small or unusually large ? 

3. What facts should teachers know about children who are subject 
to nervous disorders ? Why is it dangerous to have a child who stutters 
in school ? How would you manage the work of such a child so that the 
danger to other children is lessened ? 

4. What physical examinations does Nebraska require? Who is to 
examine the children and what is the penalty for neglecting to do so ? 
Why was such a law passed? 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(42) 45 


5. Children are generally classified on the basis of mental traits. 
Does it appear that they differ less mentally than they do physically and 
morally ? Explain. 

6. Are children usually well balanced (if strong in one desirable 
trait, strong in all) ? 

7. Is there any evidence that the moral development of children is 
conditioned by their physical and mental traits ? 

8. Why should teachers study the physical, mental, and moral 
characteristics of children? 

9. After having read the references write a paragraph on the moral 
training of children. 

References: 

Use references for Observation Exercises 9 and 10. 

Observation Exercise 12 

(Grades V to VII) 

Observers’ Problem: 

What should a class be doing and what appearance should it present 
when its study activity progresses satisfactorily? 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

1. Give the observers an opportunity to observe an unsupervised 
class studying during an entire period. 

2. Give them opportunity, also, to observe a supervised class study¬ 
ing for an entire period. 

To the Observers: 

1. The Unsupervised Class— 

a. Is there a regular study program arranged for the class, 
which specifies the time when the study of each subject 
should begin and when it should stop ? If so, did every pupil 
study the subject listed on the program? If there is no 
study program, how many different subjects were studied 
during the period ? 

b. How many of the pupils began to study immediately? How 
many minutes did those who were not ready to begin at once 

waste? What part of the period was gone when the last one 

% 

began to study? 

c. About what part of the class studied continuously during the 
entire period? How many pupils studied intermittently (off 
and on) ? How many stopped studying before the end 


46 ( 43 ) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


of the period ? About how much time was wasted by study¬ 
ing intermittently and stopping before it was time to stop ? 
(Whispering is included in this.) 

d. Were all the books and the material the class was to use 
ready for the children so that they did not need to take time 
to get them ? If not, how much time was wasted in this 
activity? 

e. About how many minutes did the class spend in going to the 
dictionary, using reference books, sharpening pencils, borrow¬ 
ing erasers, etc. ? 

f. About how many minutes in all were spent “in leaving the 
room” ? 

g. What is the S. Q. (study quotient) for the class? (Divide 
the total number of minutes spent in study by all pupils by 
the product of the total number of minutes in the period and 

the number of pupils in the class.) 

\ 

h. Were all the children expected to do the same amount of 
work ? 

i. Did it appear that the class was given sufficiently explicit 
directions for the study of the lesson at the time of the as¬ 
signment? Cite instances to support your answer. 

j. What evidence can you give to show that the work was or 
was not strongly motivated? (Strongly motivated work is 
marked by undivided attention, willingness to study, interest 
in the work, purposeful and wholehearted study.) 

k. What evidence did you discover in the general attitude of the 
children to indicate whether or not the results achieved 
during the study period were satisfying ? 

l. Find out from the teacher just what general study directions 
the class has received. 

2. The Supervised Class— 

1. What is the S. Q. (See ‘g’ above) of the supervised class? 
Does supervised study pay from the standpoint of economy of 
time alone? 

2. How did the teacher manage to keep all of the children at 
work all of the time ? 

3. What evidence did you observe that the children do or do not 
depend too much on the teacher? 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(44) 47 


4. How were the bright pupils benefitted by supervised study? 
The average pupil? The slow and less able children? 

t 

5. How did the teacher find out which pupils needed help? 

6. Write a paragraph on How an Ideal Class Should Study. 

References: * 

Kitson—How to Use Your Mind, 53-70; 71-101; 102-117; 118-137. 

Whipple—How to Study Effectively, 7-42. 

Dearborn—How to Learn Easily, 1-43. 

» 

Observation Exercise 13 
(Grades II to VIII) 

Observers’ Problem: 

What is the pupil’s part in an ideal recitation? 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

1. Give the observers an opportunity to visit a recitation that is not 

a “Socialized Recitation”. 

2. Give them the opportunity also to visit a “Socialized Recitation”. 

To the Observers: 

1. “Non-socialized Recitation”— 

a. What was the problem for discussion? Were most of the. 
children interested in the problem ? 

b. How many children asked questions? Give the total number 
of questions they asked. Were they good questions? Quote 
the best two. 

c. To whom did the children talk or recite? Was listening 
motivated? Did they comment on each other’s answers or 
contributions ? 

d. Did the pupils come to class with definite preparation? If 
not, what happened to assure better preparation the next 
time ? 

e. Did the children show a disposition to help each other in the 
recitation? Did they assume any of the responsibility of 
carrying-the recitation through successfully? Cite instances 
to support your answers. 

f. What responsibility did the children assume in determining 
what facts were important, the order of importance, and how 
the answer to the problem was finally to be worded ? 


48 (45) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


g. What problem did the children themselves discover during 
the recitation that was important enough for further study 
and investigation ? 

h. What is the greatest number of questions any one pupil an¬ 
swered? The smallest number? What per cent of the class 
did about all the work ? 

i. Find the T. Q. (talking quotient) of the class. (The T. Q. is 
found by dividing the total number of minutes the pupils 
talked by the length of the recitation period in minutes.) 
Find the T. Q. of the teacher. 

2. ‘‘Socialized Recitation”— 

a. Answer the questions asked under the head of “Non-social- 
ized Recitation” above. 

b. Find the T. Q. of the class and compare it with the T. Q. of 
the class in the “Non-socialized Recitation”. Find the T .Q. 
of the teacher. 

c. Write a paragraph, after reading the references, on the 
Pupil’s Part in an Ideal Recitation. 

d. Discuss the above exercises in the theory class; also the 
references. 

References: 

Robbins—The Socialized Recitation. 

Whitney—'Socialized Recitation. 

Use references for Observation Exercise 6. 

THE TEACHING OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL SUBJECTS 

READING 

(Use at least four of the six exercises outlined) 

Observation Exercise 14 
(First Primary) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to teach reading to beginners. 

There are a number of successful methods of teaching beginners to 
read. Their difference is greatest at the very beginning. Sooner 
or later they all concern themselves with three more or less distinct 
types of work, which you will see demonstrated in this lesson. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(46) 49 


To the Demonstrator: 

1. Conduct a short recitation in oral reading, illustrating such points 
as you deem important. 

2. Conduct a three minute word drill (sight words), illustrating 
the five characteristics of a model drill exercise. 

3. Conduct a two minute phonic drill (blend-work), illustrating the 
important phases of such work. 

To the Observers: 

1. Cite instances to prove that the teacher made thought-getting 
the fundamental thing in the reading of the story. When were 
the children permitted to BEGIN the reading of a sentence ? 

2. All efficient drill work must have at least five characteristics. 

(a) it must be properly motivated; (b) it must have for its aim 
a specific goal; (c) the children must give the work their un¬ 
divided attention; (d) the work must be made satisfying to the 
children; and (e) the thing to be established as a habit must be 
repeated the greatest number of times possible. 

3. (a) How did the teacher get the children to be willing workers? 

(b) What specific ability was the drill exercise to develop? 

(c) Record all the little devices the teacher used in getting 
the undivided attention cf the children during the drill exercise. 

(d) What did the teacher do to make the work satisfying to the 
children? (e) How many times was each word repeated? 

4. Cite instances to show that the drill on phonics was or was not 
well done. Copy all the phonograms taught during the first year, 
learn to mark them properly in words, and give their sounds 

accurately. 

Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. Describe in detail the method of teaching reading used in the 
first grade of your school. How is the method used in the second grade? 
Third ? 

i 

2. Describe another way of teaching reading to beginners. What 
are the strongest and weakest points of each method? 

3. Why should children be given phonic drills? Why should the 
phonic work not be associated in the minds of the children with reading? 

4. Nearly all teachers can teach eighty-three sight words in ten 
weeks, the majority of primary teachers can do it in eight weeks, and a 


50 (47) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


few can teach them in six weeks. Name all the factors that might 
account for this difference in time. 

5. Discuss the five characteristics of a good drill lesson. Which is 
the most important of the five? Name other characteristics. 

6. Why should a beginner in reading know all the words in a sen¬ 
tence before he begins to read it? 

7. What is the primary aim of teaching reading in the elementary 
school? What can be done in the first grade toward reaching the goal 
named ? 

References: 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 137-40; 141-9. 

Wilson & Wilson—Motivation of School Work, 58-60; 63-7. 

Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 118-22; 126-7. 

Spaulding & Bryce—The Aldine Manual for Teachers. 

Ward—The Ward Manual for Teachers. 

Tinley—First Steps in Reading. 

The Searson and Martin Manual for Teachers. 

Klapper—Teaching Children to Read, 38-57; 58-80; 102-23; 206-36. 
Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 72-120. 

Observation Exercise 15 

(Grades II to IV) 

Observers’ Problem: 

i 

How to conduct a recitation that has for its aim quantitative reading. 

The purpose of quantitative reading in the lower grades is twofold: 

(1) to give children the enjoyment of reading an interesting selec¬ 
tion without interruption; (2) to give them the much needed practice 
in the development of the reading ability. It may consist (1) of oral 
reviews of interesting lessons children like to read more than once, 

(2) of oral sight reading of easy and unusually interesting material, 
and (3) of extensive home reading, either oral or silent. For their 
home reading children may use interesting supplementary readers or 
story books for children. 

To the Demonstrator: 

Conduct a recitation whose sole purpose is enjoyment and reading 
the largest quantity of material possible during a period of fifteen 
minutes. The success of the lesson will depend upon the choice of 
the selection. Ask for a report on outside reading. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(48) 51 


To the Observers: 

(a) Cite instances to show that the children enjoyed using the 
recitation period in reading a maximum amount without interrup¬ 
tion. (b) Estimate the time spent in actual reading. What per 
cent was it of the recitation period? (c) When the reader came to 
words he could not pronounce what did the teacher do ? In all how 
much time was so spent? (d) Make a list of supplementary readers 
and of other material in the school that can be used for quantitative 
reading, (e) How much outside reading are the children doing in 
this class ? What is the greatest number of books any one child 
has read at home ? What is the total number of books the whole 
class has read outside of school? In what ways does the teacher 
encourage extensive outside reading? 

Discussion of Methods 

The greatest weakness in the teaching of reading in the lower grades 
is that too often in the minds of the teachers it is MERE PRACTICE. 
How would you like to practice on an interesting selection? Would you 
enjoy reading an interesting part of the selection and then be called 
back to read again from the beginning? Would you be satisfied to 
forego the reading of the whole story in order that you might read a part 
of it again and again? Of course not! Neither are the children. Quan¬ 
titative reading corrects this weakness. Its purpose is to give children 
a chance to read. 


Exercises 

1. What is the purpose of quantitative reading in the lower grades? 

2. What means must a school possess in order to do much quan¬ 
titative reading? 

3. Describe the materials suitable for quantitative reading. Which 
type do you consider the best? 

4. If you wished your class to read the greatest quantity of sub¬ 
ject matter, how would you conduct the recitation? 

5. In what ways may children be encouraged to read at home? 
Why should habits of home reading be established in the case of children 
in the lower grades ? 

6. Why should not the reading in the primary grades be considered 
practice work? 

7. After reading the references write a paragraph on the Need of 
Quantitative Reading. 

8. Discuss the questions asked in connection with the observation 
work. 


52 (49) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


References: 

Wilson & Wilson—Motivation of School Work, 67-70. 

Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 125-6. 

Survey of the St. Louis Public Schools, Part 2, 181-2; 185. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 31-2; 33-8; 73-82. 
Klapper—Teaching Children to Read, 154-8. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 334-40, 
367-70. 


Observation Exercise 16 
(Grades III to V) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to develop a reading vocabulary. 

During the first two grades the reading material deals with words 
whose meaning the children already know. Beginning with the 
third grade words not in the average child’s vocabulary are being 
introduced through reading lessons in an ever increasing number. 
Upon the mastery of the meaning of these new words depends the 
ability of getting the thought accurately from the printed page. 
It will be necessary therefore to start a new line of work in the third 
grade to be continued throughout the elementary school—a type 
of work that merits much more attention than it now receives. A 
thorough mastery of the reading vocabulary in the intermediate 
and grammar grades requires as much attention and drill as does 
the mastery of phonics and sight words in the primary grades. 

To the Demonstrator: 

1. Illustrate your method of developing the meaning of words 
through their context. (If the meaning of a word is strongly 
suggested by what precedes or follows it, the reader is said to 
get its meaning through its context.) 

2. Select some words whose meaning the children can get best 
directly from the teacher. Illustrate ways of developing the 
meaning of such words. 

3. The meaning of some words children can. get easily from the 
dictionary. Illustrate the various purposes for which the dic¬ 
tionary should be used by children and how it should be used. 

4. The meaning of a new word is not always remembered by one 
repetition. As much drill is necessary on meaning as on form. 
Illustrate various methods of drilling on meaning of words. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(50) 53 


To the Observers: 

(a) Name the words whose meanings were developed by each of the 
three methods illustrated. In each case was the method well 
adapted to the Word? (b) What instructions did (or had) the chil¬ 
dren receive as to the use of the dictionary with reference to the 
arrangement of words? With reference to the use of the index (or 
its substitute) ? With reference to the “catch-words” on each page? 
With reference to the pronunciation? With reference to the various 
definitions to be found ? Calculate the time it takes the class to find 
three words of your own naming in the dictionary. How long did it 
take you? (c) What methods were used in drilling on the meaning 
of words ? Did the drill meet all the requirements of an ideal drill 
exercise? Give reasons, (d) Select six words from lessons already 
studied by the class and test the children on their meanings. Give 
the class the Thorndike vocabulary test. Judging from the results of 
these tests, do you think the reading vocabulary should receive more 
attention in this class ? 

Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. Why is it necessary to give considerable attention to the reading 
vocabulary above the second grade? 

2. Name three ways in which children may learn the meaning of a 
new word. From a lesson the children have not yet read, select three 
words whose meaning children can get best from the context, three 
whose meaning they can get best from the teacher, and three whose 
meaning they can get easily from a dictionary. 

3. Why is much of the time children spend in using the dictionary 
wasted? On what particular points in the use of the dictionary should 
children receive careful instruction? 

4. List all the information an unabridged dictionary contains con¬ 
cerning the word “satisfaction”. 

5. What means may be used to establish the dictionary habit on 
the part of children in the intermediate grades? 

6. Make a set of twenty-four “flash-cards” containing difficult 
words as to meaning on one side and excellent definitions of them on the 
other. Tell how you should use them. 

7. Name all the reasons why one should form the habit of studying 
words. 

References: 

Bolenius—Teachers’ Manual of Silent and Oral Reading, xxxix-xl; 
xlii. 


54 (51) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Survey of St. Louis Public Schools, Part 2, 178-182. 

Klapper—Teaching Children to Read, 130-1. . i 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, 63; 76-79. 

Sheridan—Speaking and Writing English, 127-8; 140-2. 

Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 65-6. 

Driggs—Our Living Language: How to Teach It and How to Use It, 
231-259. 


Observation Exercise 17 
(Grades IV-VIII) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to motivate oral reading and listening. 

Oral reading is usually defined as a process of thought-getting and 
thought-giving. This definition implies that the oral reader must be 
given an audience. His motive for oral reading is to convey his 
interpretation of the printed page to others who do not know what 
it is and who are anxious to find out. The individuals who gladly 
listen to another reading orally to learn what the printed page is 
about are his audience. When pupils are assigned the same lesson 
for study and then meet later in a so-called recitation merely to 
practice oral reading, they do their oral reading without a real 
audience. The reader knows that he has nothing to give that his 
classmates do not already possess. He has no motive to read and 
they have no motive to listen. The purpose of this demonstration 
lesson is to illustrate a number of ways in which both the oral 
reading and the listening may be motivated. 

To the Demonstrator: 

(Use two classes and spend about five minutes on each illustration.) 

1. Divide the class into groups of four or five pupils each. Let each 
group carefully prepare and read to the whole class an inter¬ 
esting selection. 

2. Let each pupil bring to school a selection which he read at home 
and which he is prepared to read to his class. (If there are 
fifteen pupils in the class and fifteen minutes are given to the 
recitation, each pupil must choose a selection that he can read 
in one minute.) 

3. Divide the class into two groups and let each group dramatize 
a short selection. 

4. Give each pupil a minute or two to read what he likes best in 
the lesson. Have each pupil prepare a second and a third choice 
to read in case his first choice is read by another before his turn 
comes. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(52) 55 


5. Read a short selection at sight (the reader alone has a book). 

6. Each child reads a different book or story and prepares to read 
to the class the most interesting incident in the book or story. 
(He must be able to tell briefly what precedes and follows the 
incident.) 

7. Let your class invite one-half of another class to be present at 
your next reading period. You, in turn, accept an invitation for 
half of your class to be present at a reading period with them. 

8. One reads and the class listens for information needed (listening 
motivated). 

To the Observers: 

(a) In each of the above cases prove that the oral reading and the 
listening were motivated, pointing out the real audience that was 
doing the listening, (b) Which methods secured the best oral read¬ 
ing? Of the various methods of motivation illustrated which one do 
you like the best? Why? What evidence can you give that the 
children were or were not prepared for oral reading? Describe the 
attention the class gave to the oral reading. 

Discussion of Methods 

From the fifth grade on there should be more silent reading than 
oral reading. Above the fifth grade at least three out of five lessons 
should be on silent reading. 


Exercises 

1. When one reads orally outside of the school what is one’s motive? 
When a pupil reads orally in school what is his motive? Why this 
difference? 

2. What is your objection to assigning all pupils in a class the same 
lesson to be prepared in exactly the same way for oral reading? 

3. Explain the meaning of the term “audience” in the following 
sentence: The oral reader should feel that he is reading to an audience. 

4. Describe a number of methods by which oral reading and listen¬ 
ing may be motivated. 

5. Find how many lessons per week are devoted to oral reading in 
each of the eight grades. How many should be on oral reading? 

6. In what way may too much oral reading be a hindrance to the 
development of the silent reading ability? 

7. After reading references write a paragraph of about twelve 
sentences on the Motivation of Oral Reading. 


56 (53) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


References: 

Pittman—Successful Teaching in Rural Schools, 182-6. 

Wilson & Wilson—Motivation of School Work, 67-70; 128-130. 

Bolenius—Teachers’ Manual of Silent and Oral Reading, xxviii- 
xxxvii. 

Survey of St. Louis Public Schools, Fart 2, 146-8; 150; 185. 
Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 3; 22-3. 

Klapper—Teaching Children to Read, 7-16; 23-26; 139-154. 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, 86-88. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 154-8. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 79f; 123. 

Observation Exercise 18 
(Grades III to V) 

Observers’ Problem: , 

What abilities should be developed in silent reading in the lower 
grades ? 

The Teacher should make a sharp distinction between oral and silent 
reading and plan lessons accordingly. In grades below the sixth 
speed and accuracy of interpretation are to be emphasized in the 
teaching of silent reading. Unless children have formed habits of 
rapid and careful silent reading before they enter the grammar 
grades, they will not likely acquire these abilities at all. 

To the Demonstrator: 

(Only a few minutes can be given to each illustration.) 

1. Quantitative silent reading develops speed. Illustrate your 
method of encouraging children to read silently at home. 

2. Have pupils read a page or two to discover hard words (“hard” 
as to the meaning as well as form). 

3. Read a phrase or clause in a paragraph or on a page and let 
the pupil who finds it first read the whole sentence. 

4. Ask specific questions concerning the subject matter in the 
lesson and have the pupils read silently to find the answers. 

5. Use the recitation time in having pupils talk about books or 
lengthy articles they have read at home. Insist on accurate report. 

6. Assign pupils special topics to be read silently for information 
the class needs. Test the report of each pupil for accuracy of inter¬ 
pretation. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(54) 57 


7. Have each child read a book chosen either by himself or by you 
and have him make a written report of his opinion of it. 

8. Form a Reading Club with each grade and let them elect a 
president and secretary. Let the Club give each pupil a library card 
on which is recorded every book read. At stated intervals each Club 
reports the number of books read. 

9. Set a time limit estimating f the number of words each pupil can 
read silently in ten minutes. By means of specific questions test the 
comprehension of each pupil. 

10. Spend the recitation period in silent reading for enjoyment, per¬ 
mitting each pupil to read what he enjoys. 

To the Observers: 

(a) In what way does the teacher encourage quantitative silent 
reading at home? (b) What specific ability is exercise 2 to 
develop? Exercise 3? (c) Why is 4 an exceptionally good exercise? 

(d) What is the value of exercise 5? (e) What specific ability is 

exercise 6 to develop? Exercise 7? (f) What is the value of 

exercise 8? Of exercise 9? (g) As a result of exercise 9 each pupil 

should have a score in rate and in comprehension. Do the fast 
readers comprehend more or less of what they read than the slow 
readers? If each pupil’s silent reading ability were tested like this 
every month and his progress graphed, what effect might it have 
on his future progress ? 

Discussion of Methods 

The ability to read well silently is a complex process in which a 
number of specific abilities are involved. The development of one of 
these specific abilities does not develop the others or the process as a 
whole. Each one must receive special treatment. In Observation Exer¬ 
cise 5 methods for developing the following abilities were demonstrated: 
(1) ability to read rapidly; (2) ability to interpret the printed page 
accurately; (3) ability to re-produce what is read; and (4) ability to read 
for information to answer specific questions. 

Exercises 

1. How many silent reading lessons per week should be given in 
each of the grades below the sixth? 

2. Why should the teacher make a sharp distinction between oral 
and silent reading? 

3. What are the two most important abilities to be developed below 
the sixth grade? Describe types of lessons that will develop each of 
the two silent reading abilities. 


58 (55) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


4. Name two other abilities to be developed below the sixth grade 
and describe exercises that will develop them. 

5. For the teaching of silent reading we need more informational 
subject matter than the ordinary school reader contains. Make a list 
of the various kinds of materials available to the teacher for silent 
reading lessons. 

9 

6. In both oral and silent reading to read with the proper degree of 
speed requires the ability to group words into phrases at sight. How 
may this ability be developed? 

7. What habits are children likely to develop that are detrimental 
to silent reading with reference to lip movements, pointing with their 
fingers, eye movements, and eye defects ? 

8. How would you determine whether a class reads as rapidly and 
interprets as accurately as the average class in the same grade? 

9. Write a paragraph on the Motivation of Silent Reading in the 
lower grades. 


References: 

Woofter—Teaching in the Rural Schools, 151-2. 

Bolenius—Teachers’ Manual of Silent and Oral Reading, xvi-xvii; 
xviii; xx-xxi; xliii-xlvii. 

Survey of the St. Louis Public Schools, 172-4; 174-7. 

Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 127-28. 

Klapper—Teaching Children to Read, 18-23. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 121-2; 340-57. 

Observation Exercise 19 
(Grammar Grades) 

Observers’ Problem: 

What abilities should be developed in silent reading in the grammar 
grades ? 

The following silent reading abilities should be developed in the 
upper grammar grades: (1) the ability to express the central 
thought of a paragraph or stanza; (2) the ability to put the central 
thought of a paragraph or stanza in the form of a question; (3) the 
ability to select the important thoughts in a lesson and arrange them 
in the order of importance; (4) the ability to select the important 
thoughts in a lesson and arrange them in the form of an outline 
showing which are of equal rank and which are subordinate in rank., 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(56) 


59 


To the Demonstrator: 

1. Have pupils write out the central thought of each of several 
paragraphs or stanzas during the study period. If when they 
come together in the recitation the pupils disagree, have them 
read the paragraph or stanza in question once more to see who 
is right. If they still disagree, let any pupil in the minority 
read the paragraph or stanza orally to the class to prove his 
point. 

2. During the study period have the pupils put the central thought 
of each of the several paragraphs or stanzas in the form of a 
question. If they disagree in the recitation, proceed as in (1). 

3. Have pupils write out as a study exercise the central thoughts 
in a selection of not less than six paragraphs and arrange them 
into two groups so that the more important thoughts are in one 
'group and the less important thoughts in the other. (Informa¬ 
tional subject matter should be used.) Treat disagreements 
in results as in (1). 

4. Have pupils take the central thoughts in (3) and arrange them 
in the form of an outline showing which thoughts are of equal 
rank and which are subordinate in rank. Treat disagreements 
in results as in (1). 

To the Observers: 

(a) What per cent of the central thoughts in exercise 1 above were 
correct? Does the class need more practice in the development of 
this ability? (b) What per cent of the questions in 2 were correct? 
Is this exercise more difficult to do than exercise 1? 3? (c) How 

does exercise 3 differ from the two preceding exercises? How do 
they compare in difficulty? (d) How do exercises 3 and 4 differ? 
Which is the more difficult? Why? In which of these abilities is 
the class the strongest? 

Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. Name some of the silent reading abilities that should be de¬ 
veloped in the upper grammar grades. How would you develop each 
ability ? 

2. What is the difference between a topical outline arranged with 
main points and sub-points and mere running notes on important 
thoughts ? 

3. Why is the exercise of selecting the two most important points 
in a selection more difficult than the exercise of selecting all the impor¬ 
tant thoughts? What additional ability is required? 


60 (57) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


4. How would you motivate silent reading in the upper grades? 

5. What kind of subject matter is best for the development of the 
abilities listed at the beginning of this Observation Exercise? Take an 
ordinary school reader and classify its subject matter under the follow¬ 
ing heads: (a) Poetry; (b) Narrative; (c) Descriptive; (d) Biograph¬ 
ical; (e) Historical; (f) Scientific; (g) Industrial; (4i) Fiction. What 
do you find as to the quantity of the kind of subject matter children 
should learn to read silently? 

6. If supplementary material were necessary for the reader you 
examined in (5), what kind would you choose? Why is the material 
published by manufacturing plants, explaining the processes used in 
making their goods, excellent for silent reading ? 

7. After reading the references write a paragraph on the Motiva¬ 
tion of Silent Reading in the upper grades. 

References: 

Bolenius—Teachers’ Manual of Silent and Oral Reading, xviii. 

Eighteenth Year Book Part II, 38-43. 

Survey of the St. Louis Public Schools, Part 2, 186. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 27. 

Klapper—Teaching Children to Read, 137-9. 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, 51-86. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 340-52; 
357-67. 

ARITHMETIC 

(Use at least four of the six exercises outlined) 

Observation Exercise 20 
(Grades I to IV) 

Observers’ Problem: 

What is meant by arithmetic ability and how is it to be developed? 

Any general ability in arithmetic such as the ability to add whole 
numbers or to multiply fractions or to place the decimal point in¬ 
volves a number of lesser abilities. To attempt to develop two or 
three or more of the lesser abilities at the same time is not only a 
waste of time and energy but it may result in failure on the part 
of pupils to acquire the general ability. Skillful instruction there¬ 
fore necessitates the analysis of the general ability into its lesser 
abilities to be developed one at a time in the order determined by 
the complexity of subject matter. Fortunately this is easily accom¬ 
plished in arithmetic because the different types of examples and 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(58) 61 


problems can be so arranged that only one new ability need be de¬ 
veloped at a time. As an illustration let us apply the analytic- 
synthetic method to the development of the general ability to add 
whole numbers: 


Types of Examples 



(a) (b) 

(c) 

(d) 


5 6 

15 

4 

(a) 

4 5 

6 

7 


4 


7 

(b) 



6 




6 




6 

(c) 

• 


5 

(d) 


(e) 

(f) 

(e) 

476 

58 


523 

64 

(f) 

(g) 

(h) 


236 

2314 


753 

48 

(g) 

329 

23645 


478 

4876 


691 

9 

(h) 


Ability each type requires 

Ability to give the 45 addition com¬ 
binations at sight. 

Ability (a) and the new ability of 
holding the sum of 4 and 5 in mind 
and adding 6 to it. 

Ability “to bridge the tens” or pass 
from the tens to the twenties, from 
the twenties to the thirties, etc. 
Abilities (a), (b), and (c) and the 
new ability of “attention span” or 
the ability to change mental sum 
and hold the correct one in mind 
through a number of additions. 
Ability (a) and the new ability of 
adding two or more columns with¬ 
out carrying. 

Abilities (c) and (e) and the new 
ability of adding two or more col¬ 
umns with process of carrying. 
Ability (f) and the new ability qi 
adding longer examples rapidly and 
accurately. 

Ability (g) and the new ability of 
adding numbers varying in length. 


In teaching addition of whole numbers the teacher should know 
the different types of examples to be taught, the ability each type 
requires, and that each ability should be thoroughly mastered before 
a new ability is begun. This information is given above. With 
such procedure the general ability will be developed more quickly 
and to a greater degree and the failures will be reduced to a mini¬ 
mum. 


To the Demonstrator: 

Have the observers under your direction arrange different types of 
examples in subtraction or multiplication or division of whole num¬ 
bers, depending upon which subject your class is ready to take up, 
from the simplest to the most complex, and state the special ability 
each type involves. Then demonstrate your method of developing 
each ability in its turn. 










62 (59) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


To the Observers: 

(a) What specific abilities did the teacher develop during the demon¬ 
stration lesson? Describe the method or methods she used. 

(b) Did the children have trouble learning the various processes 
one by one? Why? If a part of the period was spent on drill 
work, criticise the exercise in the light of the discussion in Exer¬ 
cise 22. 


Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. What should teachers know concerning general abilities in arith¬ 
metic such as the ability to add whole numbers or the ability to multiply 
fractions ? 

2. Arrange the various types of examples commonly taught in 
addition of fractions in sequence ranging from the simplest to the most 
complex, and name the specific ability each type of example requires. 
Treat subtraction, multiplication, and division of fractions in the same 
way. 

3. Why is it a serious mistake to attempt to develop two or more 
of the lesser abilities in a general complex ability simultaneously? This 
must happen frequently when the teacher is not aware of the lesser 
abilities. 

4. What are the lesser abilities in the general complex ability of 
adding whole numbers? Name three advantages this knowledge gives 
the teacher if she puts it into practice. 

5. Discuss the answers written to the questions asked the observers 
in connection with their observation work. 

6. What other ideas did you find in the references that are worth 
while ? 

7. Write a paragraph on The Complexity of the Ability to Add. 

/ '# '* "' * 

References: 

Pittman—Successful Teaching in Rural Schools, chapter XIII. 

Klapper—Teaching of Arithmetic, 76-9. 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, 131-8. 

Hoyt and Peet—Everyday Arithmetic, 8; 11; 12; 37; 55; 71; 95; 123; 

151; 252 (Same idea is used in Primary and Intermediate book). 

Eighteenth Yearbook, Part I, 21. 

Thorndike—Psychology of Arithmetic, chapter I; III-IV. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(60) 63 


Observation Exercise 21 
(Grades IV to VI) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to test the lesser abilities. 

It is necessary frequently to test the progress made in the develop¬ 
ment of the lesser abilities in any complex process. In school 
practice there are three distinct calls for such diagnostic testing: 
(1) to test the work as it is being done at stated periods; (2) to 
test the work when completed; and (3) to ascertain the cause of 
individual failures. The reviews usually given while a topic is 
being studied and again upon its completion should be diagnostic. 
They should give the teacher the information as to whether the 
elements that were consciously put into the complex structure are 
all there and intact. Just as much care needs to be exercised in 
selecting types of examples for reviews as for the development of 
the general ability. The partial reviews should contain all the types 
used up to that point in the development process; the final reviews 
should contain the complete list without any complications. An un¬ 
controlled and haphazard review enlightens the teacher only par¬ 
tially. 

To the Demonstrator: 

The procedure in this lesson is the converse of that in Observation 
Exercise 20. The purpose of the testing of lesser abilities is to 
ascertain the specific kind of work, if any, in which the children 
need more practice. 

1. Give a class in Grade V or VI the following addition test: 


(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(6) 

(7) 

1-4 

3-8 

1-6 

3 2-9 

4 1-6 

8 5-6 

4 2-3 

3-4 

1-4 

3-8 

4 5-9 

5 2-3 

4 3-8 

5 5-6 


6 3-8 


“1-4” means the fraction one-fourth; “3-8” the fraction three- 
eighths, etc. 

2. Have the observers under your directions score the test papers. 
To the Observers: 

(a) Which examples are not missed by any of the pupils? (b) Which 
are missed by all of the pupils? (c) Make a list of five examples 
like each type on which the class as a whole needs more practice, 
(d) Make a list of five examples like each type on which individual 
pupils need more practice, (e) Return to this room tomorrow to 
observe how easily and quickly class and individual weaknesses can 









64 (61) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


be corrected when once the teacher has definite knowledge as to 
what is needed. Record her methods used. 

Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. Name three uses of diagnostic tests. Why test at all during 
the formation of a complex ability and again upon its completion? 

2. What should be the purpose of a review? What must be its 
character to accomplish this purpose? 

3. What is the principal weakness of reviews as they are being 
given ? 

4. W T hy is it that teachers are often disappointed because their 
pupils do not know as much as they thought? 

5. Make a diagnostic test for a final review in multiplication of 
decimals; for a final review in division of decimals. 

6. What other ideas did you find in the references that you thought 
worth while ? 

7. Write a paragraph on the Need of Diagnostic Tests in Arith¬ 
metic. 

References: 

Klapper—The Teaching of Arithmetic, 106-8; 336-64. 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, 109-17; 118-24; 124-31 
138-46; 146-52. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 262; 304; 307; 291. 

Hoyt and Peet—Everyday Arithmetic—Primary, Intermediate, and 
Advanced (See references under “Diagnostic Tests” in Index). 

Monroe—Diagnostic Tests in Arithmetic. 

Thorndike—Psychology of Arithmetic, Chapter II. 

Observation Exercise 22 
(Grade II or III) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to conduct a drill lesson on the forty-five addition combina¬ 
tions. 

Let us state once more the five characteristics of an ideal drill ex¬ 
ercise: (1) it must be properly motivated; (2) it must have for its 
aim a specific activity; (3) repetitions must be made with undivided 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


( 62 ) m 


attention; (4) the work must be made satisfying to the children; 
(5) the activity to be established as a habit must be repeated the 
greatest number of times possible. ? ,how 


To the Demonstrator: 


ae'x»o^q 


1. Let your drill exercise meet each of the above requirements of 
an ideal drill lesson. 


2. Use “flash-cards” on one side of which are placed the forty-five 

combinations without answers and on the other side the com¬ 
binations with answers. ioairr; 

3. Use a large chart with the forty-five combinations on it. 

jTi 

4. Write the combinations for this particular exercise on the black¬ 
board for a part of the drill. n>c * / 

5. Write the combinations on paper for five minutes written ^ork, 
comparing the number of examples added correctly with previous 
records in order to show progress from time to time (show re¬ 
sults in graph form). Use any drill device that you have found 

! ' ' v * j. 

successful. If possible, do not spend time on anything but re¬ 
petitions of combinations. The combinations with.correct sums 
should be kept on the board in full view of the children. 


To the Observers: 

(a) How did the teacher motivate the work so that the children 
entered upon the task whole-heartedly and purposefully? (b), Name 
the various attention tricks the teacher used in holding the children 
to the work with undivided attention throughout the drill period, 
(c) What was the specific aim of the exercise? 0 (dj What means 
did the teacher use in making the work satisfying' to ‘th'e children.? 
Was the teacher quick to detect progress and Was She; disposed to 
rejoice with the children on account of it? How did she measure 
progress accurately so that the children were conscious Of it ? 

(e) What means were used to secure both speed and accuracy? 

(f) What did the teacher do to secure the greatest number of 
repetitions possible during the time set apart for the exercise? How 
many addition combinations or repetitions of the Same combination 
were given per minute ? How much of the drill period was used in 
‘getting ready’ and doing things other than adding?,] Can you cite 
instances to show that time was wasted? orf> [ j f , 

Uom ai yUew odi 

Discussion of Methods* ,. .:>< aoLfoT: 


1. 

2. 


Exercises II.of 3{rquq .2 

Discuss questions asked in connection with the observation work. 
What are the chief characteristics of a good drill lesson? 


66 (63) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


3. What is the value of attention in drill work ? What are the most 
effective things teachers can do to hold the attention of a class in drill 
work? 

4. Why is it necessary to prove to children that they are making 
progress ? 

5. What good ideas do you find in the following references ? 

6. Write a paragraph on Drill Work in Arithmetic. 

References: 

Klapper—Teaching of Arithmetic, 48; 49-51; 83-91; 91-97; 158-169; 
170-182; 183-205; 204-209; 242-253. 

Wilson & Wilson—Motivation of School Work, 158-182. 

Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 273-4; 279-281; 290-2; 
294-5. 

Freeland—Modern Elementary School Practice, 355-8; 247. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 156-68. 
Thorndike—Psychology of Arithmetic, chaps. V-VI; VIII. 


Observation Exercise 23 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to develop a principle or rule. 

A rule to be of any use to children in solving problems in arith¬ 
metic must be understood. To be understood IT' MUST BE 
THOUGHT OUT INDUCTIVELY. The children must be able to 
think of the rule in terms of the concrete examples or problems 
from which it was derived. When a rule recalls the typical ex¬ 
amples or problems used in its development and the typical ex¬ 
amples or problems recall the rule, then it is understood. How to 
make this possible will be demonstrated in this lesson. 

To the Demonstrator: 

1. Bring about a situation that will make it necessary for the 
class to add fractions. The members of the class will then feel 
the need of knowing the rule for the addition of fractions and 
the work is motivated. In other words, the class has a real 
problem—Finding the rule for the addition of fractions. 

2. Have pupils tell you which of the following numbers can be 
added: 2 cents, 3 pounds, 4 hats, 4 pounds, 5 cents, 6 pounds, 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(64) 67 


7 hats, 1 cent, 5 snakes. What kind of numbers can be added ? 
What kind cannot be added? (Fact one) What is the name 
of 2 dollars ? Of two thirds ? Of 3 fourths ? Of 5-6 ? Of 2-7 ? 
Which of the following fractions have the same name: 2-3, 3-4, 
1-3, 2-5, 1-4 and 2-4? If only numbers of the same name can 
be added, which of the above fractions can be added as they 
stand? Which can not? (Fact two) When numbers of the 
same name are added what is done with the common name? 


Add (a) 
4 pounds 
6 pounds 
3 pounds 


Add (b) 

1 fourth 

2 fourths 

3 fourths 


Add (c) 

3- 5 

4- 5 
1-5 


Now state the rule for adding fractions with a common name 
(common denominator). (Fact three) But our problem has frac¬ 
tions with different names. How can fractions with different de¬ 
nominators be added? Can you give 1 half another name? Still 
another name ? Can you give 1 third another name ? Another 
name besides sixth ? Can you give 1 half and one third a common 
name ? 

W T hat is the common (same) name? Now who can make a good 
guess as how 1 half and 1 third can be added? All right, we will 
add 1-2 and 1-3 as you say. Can you prove that the answer is 
right? Wrong? Well, who can make a better guess, remembering 
that only numbers of the same name can be added and that 1 half 
and 1 third can be given the same name? All right, we will try 
your guess. Is this answer right? Let us try your guess on 1-3 
and 1-4. Is the answer right? Try it on 1-2 and 1-5. Is the answer 
right? Then your guess works which proves that it is right. Now 
state the rule as carefully as you can. State it again; again. State 
it in concert; again. Have we solved our problem? Give the an¬ 
swer. Write it in your notebooks. Write the examples we used 
to find the rule underneath it. Work the examples out below the 
rule. 

To the Observers: 

(a) Write out the whole procedure in detail in your notebook, in¬ 
dicating every step taken, (b) Name the distinct steps you dis¬ 
cover in this “inductive lesson”, (c) Give evidence to show that 
the third step is rightly called “the trial and error step”, (d) Why 
was it necessary to try the guess on a number of examples? (e) 
Why were the rule, the examples from which the rule was derived, 
and the work of adding them written together in the pupils note¬ 
books ? 





68 (65) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. What is necessary for children to do in order to understand a 
rule in arithmetic well enough to apply it to the solving of problems ? 

2. What type of a lesson did you see demonstrated in Observation 
Exercise 23? Name the distinct stages in the reasoning process of this 
type. Prove that the third step has an element of chance in it. Why 
is it necessary that children be willing to try often in this sort of work? 

3. Write out a lesson plan for the development of the rule in sub¬ 
traction of fractions; for the rule of multiplication of fractions; for the 
rule of division of fractions. 

4. What other ideas did you find in the references that you thought 
worth while? 

5. After having read the references write a paragraph on the 
Development of Rules in Arithmetic. 

References: 

Klapper—The Teaching of Arithmetic, 52-3; 97-100; 111-113. 
Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 283-5; 295-6. 

Freeland—Modern Elementary School Practice, 245. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 260. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 313. 

y j yr —j | * ; t . 

Observation Exercise 24 
(Grades V to VIII) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to teach children to solve problems. 

To solve problems in arithmetic pupils must be able to do four 
things: (1) they must be able to interpret the problem; (2) they 
must be able to recall the rule to be applied; (3) they must be 
able to determine definitely what is to be done according to the 
rule; and (4) they must be able to do it. Most of the trouble 
children experience in solving problems has to do with the first 
three steps. This lesson is to demonstrate the necessary habits 
to be established in connection with these steps. 

Jjovr^h anw Vav o/ft dsiaw mo'r’; solqn 

To the Demonstrator: , 

1. Demonstrate for the observers that the interpretation of the 
problem involves (1) the ability to read the problem (knowing 
meaning of technical terms, being familiar with the problem 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(66) 69 


situation, and mastering language difficulties), (2) the ability 
to state clearly what is to be found, and (3) the ability to 
name what is given in the problem to find it. 

2. Show the observers that with the meaning of the problem in 

mind and especially what is to be found and what is given 

to find it the pupils usually recall the right rule. If a mistake 
is made, they have to try again and again. This is the only 
way. 

3. Show, in the third place, that with the interpretation of the 
problem and the rule in mind they are able to make a good 
guess as to the plan of solving the problem. 

4. To demonstrate the three points indicated above assign the 

following lesson for study the day before: Your lesson for 

tomorrow’s recitation will be the six problems on page -. 

Do four things with each problem: (1) read each problem 
again and again until you are sure of its meaning (explain at 
this time all technical terms); (2) write in your notebook what 
is to be found in each problem; (3) write also what is given 
to find it; and (4) write what you would do to find it. (If in 
spite of this assignment pupils will begin “to figure” before 
they do these four things carefully, use problems without 
numbers.) 

5. To emphasize for the pupils the procedure outlined in (1), (2) 
and (3) above have a class exercise on several problems that 
are new to them before taking up the recitation on the assigned 
lesson. 

To the Observers: 

(a) What was the assignment given the children for the recitation 
lesson? (b) How many failures did you note in each of the three 
steps named in this exercise? Could you discover whether children 
failed because they did not know the meaning of the problem, 
because they did not definitely hold in mind the meaning with what 
is to be found and what is given, or because they did not keep in 
mind at the same time their interpretation of the problem and the 
rule they recalled? To which cause was the greatest number of 
failures due? (c) What method did the teacher use in correcting 
errors in the first step ? In the second step ? 

Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. What must children be able to do to solve problems in arith¬ 
metic ? 



70 (67) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


2. If a pupil gives the wrong answer to a problem, how can you 
determine in which step the mistake was made ? 

3. In which step do children experience most of the trouble in 
solving problems ? What habits should the teacher develop on the 
part of the pupils with reference to each of the first three steps ? 

4. What does the interpretation of the problem involve? 

5. What must-the pupil do so that he will likely recall the right 
rule ? 

6. What must the pupil clo so that he will likely hit upon the right 
plan of solving the problem ? 

7. If his first plan of solution is wrong, what should the pupil do? 
How often should he be willing to try? 

8. This is a deductive lesson. How does it differ from the inductive 
lesson as illustrated in Observation Exercise 23? 

References: 

Klapper—Teaching of Arithmetic, 53-6; 79-82; 111-118. 

Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 285-290. 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, 157-60; 160-8. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 255-6; 257-9. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 310-1; 314. 

Thorndike—Psychology of Arithmetic, chapters IX-X. 

Observation Exercise 25 
(Grades V to VIII) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to teach children to solve problems (Continued). 

The assignment given the children for today’s lesson was to take 
their plans, for the solution of the six problems in yesterday’s lesson, 
do the work, and check results. 

To the Demonstrator: 

1. Mistakes in the first two steps were to be corrected yesterday, 
but not the mistakes in the third step. The mistakes made in 
the plan of solutions are to be corrected today. 

2. Show the observers that the first thing to do is NOT to correct 
the plan of the solution, but to let the pupils do the work and 
find out for themselves whether it is right or wrong. This 
means (1) that the pupils must be able to do the work indicated 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(68) 71 


and (2) that they must be able to check their answers to find 
out whether they are right or wrong. 

3. Show the observers that your pupils know what to do when they 
have checked their answers and found them wrong. (To demon¬ 
strate your methods of helping pupils to perform the work 
indicated, teaching them how to check results, and illustrating 
what to do when results are wrong USE PROBLEMS NEW to 
the children.) 

4. To demonstrate your methods of disposing of solutions correctly 
worked out by the pupils during the study period and of cor¬ 
recting those worked incorrectly check yesterday’s preparation 
for today’s recitation. (If a problem is solved correctly by all 
the pupils, is it a waste of time to put its solution on the 
board and have it explained?) 

5. Show the observers what you consider necessary steps in a 
solution. 

To the Observers: 

(a) What was the assignment given the children for the recitation 
lesson? (b) How were the mistakes made by the pupils in telling 
how the problems were to be solved corrected? (c) When pupils 
found their answers wrong what did they do? (d) Were the pupils 
able as a rule to check their answers? (e) How many of the 
answers to the six problems were wrong? What does this indicate? 

(f) What was done with the solution that all pupils had right? 

(g) Do you like the form of solutions used? Why? 

Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. Why should children be able to check their results in arithmetic? 

2. Why not tell a pupil that his plan of solution is wrong? 

3. What are the chief characteristics of a good solution? 

4. Name the habits that children should form in connection with 
problem solving in arithmetic. 

5. How would you treat failures in the problem-solving activity? 

6. What other ideas did you find in the references that you thought 
worth while ? 

References: 

Klapper—Teaching of Arithmetic, 209-279; 279-298. 

Wilson & Wilson—Motivation of School Work, 165-182. 


72 (69) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 292-3. 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, 168-173. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 260-1. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 296; 304; 308. 

Branom—The Project Method in Education, 96-98. 

COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR 
(Use at least four of the six exercises outlined) 

Observation Exercise 26' 

Observers’ Problem: 

How may composition work be motivated ? 

Dewey’s essential conditions for the motivation of composition work: 

(1) The speaker or writer must feel that he has something worth 

while to say or write; (2) the speaker or writer must feel that he 

has an audience that is anxious to hear what he has to say or read. 

To the Demonstrator: 

1. Illustrate how Dewey’s recommendations for the motivation of 
composition may be put into practice. 

t 

2 . A suggestive illustration: The pupils in the fifth and sixth 
grades of a State Normal Training School wanted the use of the 
swimming pool during the summer session. The teacher in 
charge seized this opportunity for several lessons in oral and 
written composition. The pupils spent one period in preparation 
for an oral interview with one of the men in charge of the pool. 
The manner of making the request, the arguments to be used, 
and the personnel of the committee to be sent were discussed. 
Another party concerned in granting the children the use of the 
pool had to be reached through a written communication. An¬ 
other recitation period had to be spent in the preparation of a 
written communication. The most forceful arguments were to 
be selected, the request was to be put into clear, unified sen¬ 
tences, and the connection of the sentences was to be carefully 
worked out so that the whole should be a well written paragraph. 
When each pupil had finished his individual contribution to the 
project, the class selected the best three paragraphs. The writers 
of these three compositions constituted a committee to prepare 
a final paragraph which after it was approved by the whole 
class was sent to the party in question. There were to be no 
misspelled words, no mistakes in capitalization and punctuation, 
and no incorrect forms, in the composition. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(70) 73 


3. Have the observers under your direction make a list of six 
school situations which can be used for composition work of the 
quality described in (2) above. Select one of the six for your 
demonstration of motivated composition. 

To the Observers: 

(a) Was the work as strongly motivated as you had expected? 

(b) Did they have something that they considered worth while to 
communicate? (c) Did they have an attentive audience? (d) In 
what respects were the results especially encouraging ? In what re¬ 
spects were you disappointed? (e) What opportunities presented 
themselves for emphasizing principles of technique? (f) Examine 
the compositions and make a list of points as to capitalization, punc¬ 
tuation, forms of words, and structure of sentences, on which the 
class needs more practice. 

Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

# 

1. What are Dewey’s fundamental requirements for motivated com¬ 
position ? 

2. In the light of Dewey’s first condition criticise the practice of 
having pupils speak or write extemporaneously. 

3. In the light of Dewey’s requirements criticise the practice of as¬ 
signing the whole class the same subject for a composition. 

4. Name a number of projects that will lend themselves to easily 
motivated composition work. 

5. In what way can pupils be trained on the form side of composi¬ 
tion work without aimless drill exercise? Can all the mechanical abili¬ 
ties essential in composition be developed in connection with such work 
as that described in (2) under “To the Demonstrator” above? 

6. In what way might the weakness of the average pupil in the 
use of capitals, punctuation marks, and correct forms of expression be 
connected with our subject of motivation? 

7. What other ideas did you find in the references that you thought 
worth while? 

References: 

Pittman—Successful Teaching in Rural Schools, 78-84. 

Wilson & Wilson—Motivation of School Work, 19; 20; 71-100. 
Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 51-3; 56-61. 


74 (71) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Driggs—Our Living Language: How to Teach It and How to Use 
It, 3-29. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 398-407. 


Observation Exercise 27 
(Grades IV to VIII) 


Observers’ Problem: 



How to teach children to write a good paragraph. 

We expect too much in composition in the elementary school and as 
a result we get too little. In a vague way children are expected to 
write lengthy compositions comparable in quality to the best in 
magazines and books; but the majority leave the eighth grade with¬ 
out being able to write clear, unified sentences or a good paragraph. 
The former aim the majority cannot reach; the latter accomplish¬ 
ment they might attain if only it were made a conscious aim. Teach¬ 
ers of composition should be satisfied.if their pupils upon leaving 
the grammar grades are able to write a paragraph on a limited 
topic in which -words are used with considerable discrimination, in 
which the sentence structure is correct, and in which the central 
thought of the paragraph flows easily from sentence to sentence. 
The ability to write a good paragraph involves (1) the ability to 
use words with discrimination, (2) the ability to write clear, unified 
sentences, and (3) ability to write a number of connected sentences 
on a limited topic. The paragraph, of course, is to be free from 
misspelled words, free from errors in the common uses of capitals 
and punctuation marks and free from monotonous sentence structure. 


To the Demonstrator: 

1. Have the observers study the compositions of children in the 
grade where this demonstration lesson is to be given for the 
purpose of making a list of words that the pupils used with 
discrimination and also a list of words that were not well chosen. 
Demonstrate your method of improving the compositions by a 
more careful selection of words on the part of the pupils. Your 
criticism should cause pupils to exercise greater care in the 
choice of words. Conduct an exercise in word study. 

2. Have the observers study the compositions again for the purpose 
of making a list of clear, unified sentences which they contain. 
Make a list of expressions that indicate a lack of the sentence 
idea. Make a list of expressions that are not sentences at all. 
Demonstrate your method of correcting these errors so as to 
give the children a clearer idea as to what a good sentence is. 
Conduct an exercise in sentence structure. 




PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(72) 75 


3. Have the observers study the compositions once more for the 
purpose of making a list of sentences that have no connection 
with the central thought of the paragraph in which they are 
used. Let them note instances where there is a lack of pleasing 
variety in sentence structure. Let them mark places in the 
paragraph where the thought does not flow easily from sentence 
to sentence. Is the opening sentence a topical sentence ? Does 
the closing sentence repeat the central thought in a new way? 
Demonstrate your method of correcting the errors the observers 
found in such a way as to improve the children’s ability to write 
a paragraph. Conduct an exercise in the composition of a para¬ 
graph according to the ideas advanced in Observation Exer¬ 
cise 26. 


To the Observers: 

(a) What are the four points illustrated in this demonstration 
lesson? (b) What method did the teacher use in correcting com¬ 
positions as to the choice of words? Describe her method used in 
the study of words, (c) How did she correct the compositions as to 
error in sentence structure ? Describe her method of getting the 
children to write clear, unified sentences, (d) How did she correct 
errors in paragraph structure ? Describe her method of teaching 
the pupils to write a good paragraph, (e) How did she correct 
the errors in spelling, capitalization, and punctuation? 


Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. Why are the majority of pupils in the eighth grade not able to 
write a well-composed paragraph? 

2. What ability in composition should a graduate of the elementary 
school possess ? 

3. What are the lesser abilities involved in the ability to write a 
good paragraph? 

4. What methods would you use in developing each of the lesser 
abilities? How would you motivate such exercises? (See Observation 
Exercise 26.) 

5. What is the best method to correct errors in composition? How 
can children be motivated to correct their errors ? 

6. How much time should be devoted to composition in the upper 
grades? How can the work in grammar be made to assist pupils in 
composition ? 


76 (73) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


References: 

Sheridan—Speaking and Writing English, 11-23; 35-40; 40-45; 127-8; 
140-142; 57; 72; 83; 93; 96; 108; 117; 130; 143-4. 

Charters;—Teaching the Common Branches, 65-6; 66-7. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 166-8. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 119-120; 93-4; 96-7; 
100-2; 107-9. 


Observation Exercise 28 
(Grades I to IV) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to correct mistakes in the oral composition of children below 
the fifth grade. 

As a preparation for their observation work have the observers 
study the oral composition of children below the fifth grade on the 
playground and in recitations, and list all the common errors chil¬ 
dren make in the use— 

1. Of pronouns such as: ‘It is me and him, him and her’; ‘John and 
me were first’; ‘He said it to John and I’; ‘Everyone should 
study their lesson’; etc. 

2. Of verbs such as: ‘I done it’; ‘They have went home’; ‘Set 
down’; ‘You can’t learn me anything’; ‘The bell has rang’; ‘I seen 
it’; ‘You wasn’t here’; etc. 

3. Of adjectives such as: ‘He writes good’; ‘I have the goodest 
apple’; ‘I don’t like them there things’; ‘This here pencil is no 

good’; etc. 

• • 

To the Demonstrator: 

1. Take the lists of incorrect uses of pronouns, verbs, and adjec¬ 
tives, collected by the observers, and demonstrate for them your 
method of drilling on correct forms and how to motivate such 
drills. Since the correct usage is to displace the incorrect it is 
all important that every repetition of the correct form be 
intense. This means that the teacher must create on the part 
of the pupils a strong desire to use the correct form, that each 
repetition be made with concentrated attention, and that pleasure 
and satisfaction be associated with each correct usage. If pos¬ 
sible make the incorrect forms unpleasant and unprofitable to 
the children. Demonstrate the methods you use to bring about 
these conditions. 

2. Find a real school situation that necessitates oral composition 
on the part of the pupils in harmony with Dewey’s principles of 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(74) 77 


motivation. Use this situation to conduct a model lesson in oral 
composition, illustrating your method of getting the children to 
speak freely and at the same time correctly. Ask the children 
whether they discovered through this lesson the need of drilling 
on any language forms. 

self • >..i 7. bn.Ul >i‘j !' .■ uw;■ •<! ' 

To the Observers: 

(a) How did the teacher make every repetition of the correct form 
count in the overthrow of the habit of incorrect speech? (b) Cite 
instances to show that the children wanted to use correct language, 
(c) Give evidence to show that correct usage was followed by pleas¬ 
ant results, (d) What devices did the teacher use to hold the un¬ 
divided attention of the pupils to correct repetitions? (e) Prove 
that the lesson in oral composition was strongly motivated, (f) 
What needed drills did the recitation reveal? (g) What was the 
teacher’s aim in conducting the lesson in oral composition ? 

/. t 0 • 5 d ;.j V-'j- ; O. :; .V-. j bn.,., a Vj.j2u':q 

Discussion of Methods 


Exercises 


1. Designate the grade in which the correction of each of the wrong 
language forms on your list should begin. 

2. How much drill does it require to correct a wrong habit in oral 
composition? Upon what does the amount depend? 

i\ * * ; ’ « : ‘ j I . V * : '■ • ' : [ ’ * * • t» { • ; { f (' 

3. Why should each child keep a list of mistakes he frequently 
makes? What else should he do in this connection? 

4. Name three ways; in which oral composition may be motivated. 

5. When the children discover that they are handicapped in oral 
composition because of wrong speech habits, why is that an opportune 
time to drill on correct forms? 


6. What should work in oral composition accomplish? 


•-.vis . 


7. How many lessons per week would you give in oral composition 
in each of the' first four grades? 

y v : ,.'7 : fib < ' ■ j \ . ' ■■ 7 ,'f- J fVt 07 

8. What else did you find in the references that you thought worth 
while ? 


I lb 


: * VlffO i 


w 


tOJTT 


7 '■ f: l ,.i. 


o;> r r j 

r ‘ , I i 


References: 

d ■ ■ fi 

Bolenius—Elementary Lessons in Everyday English, 5; 16; 26; 32; 
33; 52; 58; 69; 70; 75; 78; 82; 98; 1Q1; 110; 117; 130; 143; 159; 
166; 176; 177; 184; 190; 191; 200; 202; 203; 208; 223; 240; 250; 
287; 300. ( 

vsw aiill m noiliadqiifot) ncbrr.v lo obi2 Isoif.n.'b^m oril 




‘ 


• V - > • 


78 


(75) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Sheridan—Speaking and Writing English, 151-8; 51-6; 61-4; 74-9; 
86-7; 97-101. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 171-2. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 92-3; 95-6; 99-100; 105-7. 

Driggs—Our Living Language: How to Teach It and How to Use It, 
101-129. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 407-424. 

See Normal Training Course in Grammar. 


Observation Exercise 29 
(Grades V to VIII) 

Observers’ Problem: 

What formal abilities in written composition should pupils in the 
upper grades possess and how are they to be developed ? 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

As a preparation for their observation work have the observers 
study compositions written by the class they are going to observe 
for the purpose of determining— 

1. Whether the children are in the habit of capitalizing the first 
word of a sentence and whether they are in the habit of using a 
period to end a written statement and a question mark after a 
written sentence that asks a question; 

2. What common errors they are making in the use of capital let¬ 
ters and in the use of punctuation marks; and 

3. What mistakes the children make in the use of pronouns, nouns, 
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 

To the Demonstrator: 

1. Illustrate for the observers your method of making the children 
see that so long as their compositions contain these errors they 
will not likely accomplish the purpose for which they were 
written. The only thing to do, then, is to correct the errors 
and be more careful the next time. (They should be led to 
discover their own mistakes so far as they are able.) Perhaps 
the children will feel the need of special drills on the cor¬ 
rection of some of the errors. If so, conduct short drills asked 
for. (The motivation of such drills would be ideal and the drills 
would be many times more effective than those that have to be 
imposed upon the children.) Try to motivate all drill work on 
the mechanical side of written composition in this way. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(76) 79 


2. The errors are merely checked but not corrected. Have each 
pupil take his own composition and correct the errors so far as 
he is able. If he can discover no mistake where one is indicated, 
let him ask for assistance from the class. After the mistakes 
are all corrected, short drills asked for should be conducted. 

To the Observers: 

(a) Does this class need further drill in capitalizing the first word 
of a sentence? If so, how would you motivate it? (b) How did the 
teacher get the class to express a desire for drills they needed? 
(c) How nearly did the strongly motivated drills meet the require¬ 
ments of an ideal drill exercise? (d) Why was each pupil asked to 
correct his own mistakes so far as he was able? (e) When he 
needed assistance why should he ask the class? (f) After the cor¬ 
rections are all made why should the pupils be asked to RE-WRITE 
rather than copy their compositions? (g) On what special work 
does the class need more practice ? 

Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. Examine several composition books and make a list of formal 
abilities to be developed in each grade above the fourth with reference 
to the use of capitals; with reference to the use of punctuation marks. 

2. What is the difference between a drill exercise on capitalization 
and punctuation as a means to an end and one conducted as an end in 
itself? 

3. How could you get the children to feel the need of knowing how 
to use punctuation marks ? When they once feel the need of knowing 
how to use punctuation marks is it pedagogically correct to drill as 
much as is necessary? 

4. In what grade should each of the incorrect speech habits on your 
list be corrected ? Of what assistance is it to the pupil to know the 
reason for the correction ? 

5. What knowledge must the pupil possess to determine for himself 
whether he should write ‘‘Who” or “Whom” in the sentence, “do you 
want”? Give a convincing argument in favor of technical grammar in 
the grammar grades. 

6. Why is it desirable to have children feel the need of grammar 
before they are asked to study it ? The need of formal abilities ? 

7. Write a paragraph on the Motivation of Formal Abilities in the 
Upper Grades. 


80 (77) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


References: • / 

f 

Sheridan—Speaking and Writing English, 46-50; 119-120; 82; 94; 
106; 116; 128-9; 59-60; 64-65; 79-80; 87-8; 101-2; 111-3; 123-4; 
135-6. 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, 252-4. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 123-4. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 424-39. 

See Normal Training Course in Grammar. 

Observation Exercise 30 
(Grade VII or VIII) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How may technical grammar in the elementary school be motivated? 

The strongest argument in favor of teaching technical grammar 
in the grammar grades is that it may be made the means by which 
pupils are enabled to correct their own errors in oral and written 
composition. Grammar makes self-criticism possible. The greatest 
service that a course in composition in the elementary school can 
render to children is to develop habits of watchful self-criticism. 
Since the power of self-criticism has its source in grammar both 
grammar and composition are necessary to render this paramount 
service. How grammar may be made to serve this purpose will be 
shown in this demonstration lesson. 

To the Demonstrator: 

1. Have the observers go back to their list of errors in oral and 
written composition and write down types of errors that can be 
corrected only by applying language principles or technical 
grammar. In all probability they will find mistakes in the use 
of the pronoun as predicate nominative, as object of a preposi¬ 
tion, as indirect object, etc.; in the use of the noun as to posses¬ 
sive form, as to number, etc.; in the use of the verb as to tense 
forms, as to tense, as to agreement of verb with subject, etc.; 
in the use of adjectives and adverbs. The power of correcting 
such errors comes from a knowledge of the language principles 
violated. It is obvious, then, that the development of the habit 
of watchful self-criticism necessitates a study of technical 
grammar, or as much of it as is necessary to correct all the 
language errors that a pupil is likely to make. 

2. We will assume that among the errors are found such mistakes 
as these: ‘He gave John and I the wrong number’; ‘The teacher 
told Mary and I to read the last paragraph’. Such mistakes 
make it necessary to study the indirect object. Our problem 
is to learn how T is used in the first sentence. To do this we 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(78) 81 


must recall three facts already learned: (1) that the name 
of the person or thing that receives the action of the verb in the 
active voice is its direct object; (2) that the object of a prepo¬ 
sition is in the objective case; and (3) the declension of the 
pronoun T\ If the sentence were written Tie gave the wrong 
number (to) John and F, it would be an easy matter to see that 
‘number’ is the direct object of the verb ‘gave’ and that ‘I’ is the 
object of the preposition ‘to’ understood. ‘I’ is therefore in the 
objective case and should have objective case form. Recall the 
declension of ‘I’ to find out what the objective case form of ‘I’ is. 
Yes, ‘me’ is correct. The sentence, then, should read, ‘He gave 
John and me the wrong number’. The pronoun ‘me’ is said to 
be the indirect object of the verb ‘gave’. Have the pupils write 
six sentences each containing a pronoun used as the indirect 
object of a verb. 

3. Play a game involving the indirect object. The teacher might 
write the verbs bought, brought, gave, told, wrote, sent, wired, 
made, planted, drew, painted, telephoned, and built on the board. 
Each pupil takes his turn in giving a sentence with a pronoun 
used as indirect object, using any verb on the board. He gets a 
score of 1 for a correct sentence. The pupil who has the highest 
score wins the game. If the class is divided into two groups 
then the side that has the highest score wins. The purpose of 
the game is to repeat the right form many times with undivided 
attention. The next day the indirect object is reviewed. Other 
grammar facts may be taught with the same motivation. 

• 

To the Observers: 

.• 

(a) What fact in technical grammar did the children learn? (b) 
Why was it necessary for them to learn it at this time? (c) Prove 
that the work was motivated, (d) Cite instances to show that the 
children were or were not interested in learning the indirect object. 

(e) What other facts in technical grammar should the pupils know 
in order to be able to correct all their mistakes on your list? 

(f) Prove that the children were conscious of the need of knowing 
the principle governing the indirect object while they were learning 
it. (g) Why were the pupils asked to write six sentences each con¬ 
taining a pronoun used as an indirect object? Why not a noun used 
as an indirect object? (h) What was the purpose of the game after 
they knew what the indirect object is ? 

Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. Give two arguments in favor of teaching technical grammar in 
the seventh and eighth grades. 


82 (79) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


/ 


2. What is the most important habit to be formed in connection 
with composition work? Why does this involve a knowledge of technical 
grammar ? 

3. What difference does it make whether or not the child feels the 
need of knowing what he is asked to learn? 

4. Describe in detail your plan of supplying the pupil with a pur¬ 
pose for learning the conjugation of verbs (motivating the work). 

5. After children see why the expression they are in the habit of 
using is wrong, how much drill does it take to establish the right form 
as habit? Would it take as much drill to make the correct usage habitual 
if they did not see that it is the correct form and the habitual usage the 
wrong form? 

6. Name two advantages that the practice of correcting errors of 
speech through a knowledge of grammar has over correcting errors 
blindly (giving the right form as it is done in the lower grades). 

7. How much technical grammar would you teach in the ele¬ 
mentary school ? Why ? 

References: 

Pittman—Successful Teaching in Rural Schools, 84-9. 

Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 73-6; 84-7; 89-91. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 181-2; 182-4. 

Driggs—Our Living Language: How to Teach It and How to Use 
It, 187-219. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 448-452. 

• See Normal Training Course in Grammar. 

GEOGRAPHY 

(Use at least four of the six exercises outlined) 

Observation Exercise 31 
(Grade IV or V) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to conduct a silent reading lesson in geography. 

To t e Normal Training Instructor: 

1. Let observers, demonstrator, and normal training instructor to¬ 
gether make a list of thirty technical terms used in the ele¬ 
mentary text the class is studying (such terms as soil, country, 
plains, drained valleys, divide, timber line, mouth of a river, 
sediment, harbor, seaport, atmosphere, evaporate, condense, 
equator, commerce, etc.). 

2. Let the demonstrator illustrate the development of the meaning 
of three of the technical terms selected, each by a different 
method. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(80) 88 


3. Illustrate three different devices for drill work on the meaning 
of technical terms not new to the children but on which they need 
more practice in order to know their meaning- at sight. 

4. Let the observers under the direction of the demonstrator pre¬ 
pare specific questions on about six paragraphs of the text, one 
topical question on each paragraph. The day before the demon¬ 
stration lesson is to be given, assign the class these paragraphs 
for a silent reading lesson and ask the pupils to write the 
answers to the questions prepared by the observers. On the day 
of the demonstration work have the children read their answers 
to each other to be accepted or corrected. (Let the demonstrator 
note that she has three distinct kinds of work to illustrate: (1) 
developing the meaning of new.terms; (2) drilling on the mean¬ 
ing of old terms; and (3) testing the quality of silent reading. 
Let her divide the time of the recitation period accordingly.) 

To the Observers: 

(a) Give evidence to show that the teacher succeeded in making the 
meaning of the three new terms real; (b) Show that the drill on the 
meaning of the old terms had all the earmarks of a good dull les¬ 
son; (c) Examine the answers the children wrote to year questions. 
What per cent of the questions did each pupil answer correctly? 
What was the class average? Why were some of the questions 
missed? Cite instances to show that through the class disr ' — ions 
the children received suggestions as to how th a y might improve 
their silent reading. Does the class need more work of this kind? 

Discussion of Methods 

1. The type of subject matter in geography texts is new to children. 
There is very little like it in the ordinary school reader. It is of a 
scientific nature and therefore necessarily technical. Unless pupils re¬ 
ceive specific instruction in the reading of geographical subject matter 
they may be handicapped sufficiently to cause failure in the study of 
geography. * 

2. When a technical term is introduced in the text its meaning 
should be carefully developed either through the context or through the 
use of the dictionary or through objects or their pictures or through a 
concrete example or through illustrations in the way. of experiments. 
But this is not enough. Considerable drill is necessary to make the new 
word a part of the children's vocabulary. The devices that are helpful 
in teaching sight-words are also helpful in drilling on meaning. 

3. At least three types of silent reading abilities should be de¬ 
veloped in the intermediate grades in the teaching of geography. Chil¬ 
dren should be able to reproduce accurately what they read. They should 



84 (81) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


be able also to read for information or facts to answer specific questions. 
Lastly, they should be able to write a good question on each paragraph in 
the text after having read it silently. Each ability requires special 
training. 

Exercises 

1. Why should teachers conduct silent reading lessons in the teach¬ 
ing of geography in the intermediate grades ? 

2. Compare the subject matter contained in an ordinary school 
reader for the fourth or fifth grade with the subject matter in an ele¬ 
mentary geography. State definitely three differences you observe. 

3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the various 
methods to be used in developing the meaning of new terms and in drill¬ 
ing on the meaning of old terms, basing your discussion partly on what 
you observed. 

4. Why is not one repetition of the meaning of a technical term 
in geography enough? Describe flash card drills for fixing meanings. 

5. Name the three types of silent reading abilities that should be 
developed in the teaching of geography in the intermediate grades. 
Describe in detail your plan of a lesson to develop each ability. (See 
Observation Exercise on Silent Reading.) 

References: 

j , i • 

Bolenius—Teachers’ Manual on Reading, xiii-xxi. 

Holtz—Principles and Methods of the Teaching of Geography, 23-28. 

Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 222-3; 229-30. 

?:> no.': 

Sutherland—The Teaching of Geography, 172-5. 

.n rihlhi* ■ j > > - « ■■■: .,</•• fd to wt '*► u > : ‘ X - 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 382-6. 

' ; ; . ■ ' 

Observation Exercise 32 
(Grades IV to VII) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to supply a concrete basis for the textbook work. 

• rfi d*nrjo\ r ff.f 

As a preparation for the observation work let the observers prepare 
three questions about geographical facts concerning which the chil¬ 
dren should have first-hand information. Place with these three 

_ • *• 

questions five exercises on home geography selected from the Hahn- 
Lackey geography scale and give the whole list to the class as a 
test the day before the demonstration lesson is to be given. Let the 
observers carefully study the answers to both sets of exercises to 
determine whether the children know enough about home geography 
to interpret the textbook easily and accurately. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(82) 85 


To the Demonstrator: 

Use any of the following 1 means to make the textbook lesson real 
and concrete to the children— 

a. If possible use concrete material supplied by the home environ¬ 
ment to illustrate any part of the lesson in the book. 

b. If the textbook lesson lends itself readily to an easy experiment, 
let the pupils perform it. 

c. If a short field excursion should yield bountiful results in con¬ 
creteness, conduct one. 

d. If possible connect the book lesson with problems that are inter¬ 
esting and worth while from the child’s point of view. 

e. Deduce as much of the lesson as possible from facts and prin¬ 
ciples the children already know and use the book for veri¬ 
fication. 

f. Whenever possible bring current events into the discussion of 
the lesson. 

g. The use of pictures and stereoscopic or stereopticon views gives 
life and reality to scant verbal descriptions. 

h. Much descriptive matter with abundance of detail (supplied by 
geographical readers) is the antidote of memoriter work in 
geography. 

i. The problem method of teaching prevents the bookishness of 
learning. In the proportion that the problem motivates the work 
to be done the subject matter will have meaning and reality. 

j. The sand ‘table furnishes a splendid opportunity for concrete 
illustration (See Course on Handwork). 

To the Observers: 

Describe definitely the different means used by the teacher to make 
the textbook lesson concrete and real to the children. Which of the 
methods was the most effective? State your reasons. What evi¬ 
dence can you give to prove that the pupils did or did not fully 
understand the lesson? 


Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. Judging from the results of the test given the class the day 


before, show that the children do or do not have a sufficient concrete 
basis for textbook work. , 


86 


((83) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


2. Name ten ways in which the textbook work in geography may 
be made real. 

3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method named 
in (2). 

4. What definite preparation should a teacher make for a field 
excursion ? 

5. Read an issue of a daily paper and clip from it events that may 
be used in geography work. 

6. Make a list of stereoscopic views that are excellent for the teach¬ 
ing of geography. How expensive are they ? 

7. Study two sets of geographical readers to determine which you 
like the better. Give reasons for your preference. 

8. What are the earmarks of a good problem ? 

References: 

Pittman—Successful Teaching in Rural Schools, Chap. XIV. 

Branom—The Project Method in Education, 233-5. 

Branom—-The Teaching of Geography. 

Holtz—Principles and Methods of the Teaching of Geography, 31- 
43; 60-71. 

Dodge and Kirchway—The Teaching of Geography, 135-51. 

Sutherland—The Teaching of Geography, 192-201; 202-15; 252-60. 
Wilson & Wilson—Motivation of School Work, 147-52. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 160-9; 172-85. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 733-44. 

Observation Exercise 33 
(Grades IV to VII) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How best to teach the location of places in geography. 

As a preparation for this lesson, let the observers under the direction 
of the demonstrator select five places the location of which children 
should know. Let them also select five exercises on locational 
geography from the Hahn-Lackey geography scale. Test the class 
on the two lists of exercises. Judging from the results of the test, 
should place relations in geography receive more attention in this 
class ? 

To the Demonstrator: 

1. It is not enough to locate important places just once. The 
teacher must provide for systematic repetitions of such locations. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


( 84 ) 87 


The following are some of the methods she may use to drill 

on the location of places already studied— 

a. Three minute drill in locating places on an outline map. (If 
there is no outline map in school, use an ordinary map.) 

b. Three minute drill with flash-cards. (The teacher writes on 
cards the places to be located, and as she flashes each card 
before the children they name the political division in which 
the place is located.) 

c. A set of cards can: be made using on each card names of six 
important places and where they are located (as ‘Paris— 
France’). Pupils in the class all hold the same number of 
cards and take their turns in giving names of places. The 
pupil who first locates it gets the card. The side or pupil 
who has the most cards wins. 

2. Illustrate several of the methods to be used in locating places 

for the first time— 

a. Methods of motivating the work of locating places. Whether 
children remember the location of a place depends largely 
upon the manner in which it was located the first time. The 
first location should receive their undivided attention and 
should be preceded by a desire to know. Reasons for know¬ 
ing its location may arouse a favorable emotional attitude on 
the part of pupils. An interesting fact or two about the 
place will aid materially. Perhaps someone known to the 
class has visited the place. 

b. Show methods of using outline maps for study work. (Chil¬ 
dren should place in outline maps only what they are ex¬ 
pected to remember.) 

c. Illustrate the use of maps in the recitation on which places 
are definitely marked. 

d. Illustrate the use of maps on which places are not marked. 

e. Lastly, illustrate the method of sketching maps quickly from 
memory and of locating places thereon. 

To the Observers: 

(a) What per cent of the places in the test were located correctly by 
the class ? What is the Hahn-Lackey standard for the five exercises ? 

(b) Which drill on the location of places did you like the best? 
Why? Suggest other drill devices, (c) Name the most important 
thing the teacher did in locating a new place. Why do you consider 
it the most important? 


88 (85) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. Describe definitely how you would proceed in testing a class to 
determine whether or not it was weak in locational geography. 

2. State the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods 
that were used in drilling on the location of places already known. 
Suggest other drill devices. 

3. Make a set of forty cards that can be used in the drill exercise 
described in (lc) above. 

4. Why is the motivation of the work of locating a place the first 
time so important? How would you locate a new place? 

5. What are the advantages of using outline maps in establishing 
place relations in geography? 

6. Why should pupils be required to sketch maps and locate places 
from memory? 

References: 

Holtz—Principles and Methods of the Teaching of Geography, 173-4; 
175; 179; 181. 

Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 216-8. 

Sutherland—The Teaching of Geography, 87-9; 246-8. 

Dodge—The Teaching of Geography, 10-2; 115. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 231. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 190-1; 192. 

Branom—The teaching of Geography. 


Observation Exercise 34 
(Grades VI to VII) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to use the problem method of teaching geography. 

As a preparation for the observation lesson, let the observers under 
the direction of the demonstrator select six problems suitable for 
seventh grade classes from the series of lessons outlined in the 
Normal Training Course in Geography. 

To the Demonstrator: 

Use one of the six problems the observers selected to demonstrate 
the problem method of teaching geography. The problem method 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(86) 89 


in its formal aspect involves four distinct stages: (1) a problem 
the children want to solve: (2) enough facts (in deductive lessons, 
principles or rules) to suggest a solution; (3) the solution fully 
worked out; and (4) the testing of the solution, Emphasize par¬ 
ticularly the first and fourth stages in the problem-solving process. 
Show also that the problem is a device by means of which the 
related and important facts in the lesson are tied together and thus 
easily remembered. 

To the Observers: 

(a) Why do you consider the problem used for demonstration an 
especially good one for seventh grade work? (b) What evidence 
can you find in the recitation that the problem method of teaching 
geography is more interesting and leads to greater activity on the 
part of pupils than the method of work in which the assignment 
is made by pages or paragraphs or by ‘next lesson’ or by ‘tomorrow 
we will study about irrigation’ ? Show that the important points in 
the lesson were associated with the problem. Prove that the pupils 
were or were not in possession of enough facts to do good work in 
thinking. Did the testing of the answers (solutions) of any of the 
pupils cause them to change the same in any way? What did you 
like best about this recitation? Why? 

Discussion of Methods 

1. Earmarks of a good problem: (1) the activity the problem 
stimulates is always purposive and supplies the motive for work; (2) it 
presents a reasonable difficulty to the ones it challenges; (3) it should 
be stated in terms of the concrete experiences of pupils for whom it is 
intended; (4) it should be stated so that it is free from language diffi¬ 
culty; and (5) it should contain a trace of the unusual and the surprising 
to shock the class into attention. 

2. The four stages of the thinking activity are not sharply sepa¬ 
rated from one another. A few significant facts may suggest a solution, 
and without looking for further data the mind follows the suggestion to 
the last step of the process and tests it out. If it proves to be wrong, 
the mind returns to the second step to gather more facts. Thus the 
activity may pass back and forth through the various steps a number of 
times before the correct solution is found. Much of the thinking activity 
may be even more of the rough-and-tumble sort than the above descrip¬ 
tion would suggest. But underneath the irregular and unmethodical 
activity there is always to be found a trace of the process approxi¬ 
mating the four stages. 


Exercises 

1. What are the characteristics of a good problem? Discuss each. 


90 (87) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


2. On the subject of Alaska, prepare a problem possessing these 
five characteristics, the problem to be assigned to a sixth-grade class. 

3. State three good arguments in favor of the problem method of 
teaching geography. 

4. Name -the four stages of the formal type of the thinking activity. 
What should grammar-grade pupils know about each stage? 

5. Describe the less formal type of the thinking activity. To which 
type did the thinking the pupils did during the demonstration lesson 
belong ? 

6. Show how the problem method of teaching geography develops 
the ability to judge relative values and the ability to organize subject 
matter. 

References: 

Sutherland—The Teaching of Geography, 138-143. 

Dodge—The Teaching of Geography, 85-6. 

Holtz—Principles and Methods of the Teaching of Geography, 26-8. 

Branom—The Teaching of Geography. 

Branom—The Project Method in Education, 236-9. 

Wilson & Wilson—Motivation of School Work, 133-47; 156. 

Hahn and Lackey—Teaching Geography and Measuring Its Results. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 193-4. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 279-83; 
314-24. 


Observation Exercise 35 
(Grammar Grades) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to emphasize principles in the teaching of geography. 

To prepare the observers for this lesson let them select from 
Lackey’s Studies in the Principles of Geography twelve principles 
that pupils should know upon the completion of the course in geog¬ 
raphy in the elementary school. Likewise under the direction of the 
demonstrator let them make a list of fifteen geographical principles 
selected from the part of the text studied by the class. 

To the Demonstrator: 

1. Conduct a short but model drill exercise on the fifteen principles 
selected by the observers. (The purpose of this drill exercise 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


88) 91 


is to show the observers the importance of committing both 
the meaning and the wording of the principles to memory. 
Pupils should know them as they know the principles in gram¬ 
mar or the rules in arithmetic. To fix them as a habit requires 
frequent drills and reviews.) 

2. Use one of the fifteen principles selected by the observers to 
demonstrate your method of developing a new geographical 
principle. This is an inductive lesson and involves the same 
mental processes as does the solution of an inductive problem. 
The technique of the mental activity is discussed in connection 
with Exercise 34 and need not be repeated here. The point the 
teacher is to keep in mind in this exercise is that it is the 
MEANING of the principle she must develop and not its form. 
She must see to it that in the minds of the pupils the principle 
is associated with the significant facts from which it was de¬ 
rived so that the principle will recall the facts and the facts will 
recall the principle. When such close association between prin¬ 
ciple and facts is established the teacher may be sure that the 
MEANING of the principle is mastered. 


To the Observers: 

(a) What was the purpose of the short drill on the fifteen principles 
you selected? How familiar were the children with the MEANING, 
of the principles? With the wording of the principles? How often 
should these principles be reviewed? Describe the devices used in 
this drill exercise, (b) What was the purpose of the second part 
of this demonstration lesson? Name the four steps in the mental 
process of thinking out a principle. What is the essential thing 
in the development of a principle ? When may the teacher be sure 
that her goal is reached? Prove that the pupils did or did not 
understand the MEANING of the principles in question. Did the 
fact that the children had a definite problem help them in the selec¬ 
tion of what was important in the lesson? Was the first answer the 
children gave correct? Who discovered the mistake? Who finally 
worded the principle? 

Discussion of Methods 

To place the emphasis in the teaching of geography on principles 
means three things: (1) to develop the MEANING of principles; (2) to 
have pupils memorize the MEANING; and (3) to have pupils memorize 
the wording of principles. Each pupil should have a notebook marked 
“Principles of Geography” in which to record the principles as fast as 
their meanings are developed. A number of drills or reviews like the 
one given in this “Observation Exercise” will be necessary for their 
complete mastery. 


92 


(89) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Exercises 

1. Describe what you consider a model drill lesson on the mean¬ 
ing and form of principles. 

2. What is the essential thing in the development of a principle? 
When may the teacher be sure that her goal is reached? 

3. It is said that principles are not an end in themselves. If this 
is true, why is it so important that they receive the emphasis in the 
teaching of geography? 

4. In the teaching of geography, what does placing the emphasis 
on principles mean? How is it best accomplished? 

5. Why does the teaching of principles require considerable drill 
work ? Can the meaning of every principle be made as much of a habit 
with us as is the meaning of the principle that ‘‘Water flows down hill”? 
How ? 

6. Make a list of all the geographical principles that should be 
recorded in the notebooks of pupils in the sixth grade when they are 
through studying North America. 

References: 

Sutherland—The Teaching of Geography, 145-54. 

Holtz—Principles and Methods of the Teaching of Geography, 25; 
254-72. 

Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 235-7. 

Hahn and Lackey—Teaching Geography and Measuring Results. 
Dodge—The Teaching of Geography, 61-80. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 190; 195-6. 

Branom—The Teaching of Geography. 


Observation Exercise 36 
(Grades VI to VIII) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to use the map in geography in deductive thinking. 

After the class is through with North America and South America 
is about to be studied the children should turn for their lesson 
directly to the map and deduce as much of the geography of South 
America as they are able. 

To the Demonstrator: 

If the class is ready for the study of South America as described 
above, conduct the following recitation, the pupils’ problem being: 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(90) 93 


How much of the geography of South America can you guess right 
from a careful study of the map? (This study-recitation should 
take place before the children have had an opportunity to read the • 
text.) Give the following directions and questions to the class as 
rapidly as they can be followed and answered. 

To the Pupils: 

a. Study carefully the location of South America with reference 
to the equator. What do you know about the temperature of 
the various countries in South America ? How do you know 
this ? Compare the temperature of parts of South America with 
the temperature of parts of North America. 

b. Note the position of the mountains. What do you know about 
the temperature of the mountainous parts of the Torrid Zone ? 
What principle of geography helps you deduce these facts ? 

c. What do you know about the winds in the neighborhood of the 
equator? What about the winds north of the equatorial belt? 
South of it? From what general principles do you deduce these 
facts? What about the winds south of latitude 35 degrees? 

d. Keeping in mind the direction of the winds- and the position of 
the mountains, what do you know about the .rainfall in the 
equatorial belt east of the mountains? West of the mountains 
in the Torrid Zone? West of the mountains in the South Tem¬ 
perate Zone ? East of the mountains ? Give reason for each 
answer. 

e. Keeping in mind the temperature and rainfall, what do you 
know about the plant life of the different sections ? In what 
two areas is plant life scanty? Why? What agricultural pro¬ 
ducts raised in North America can also be grown in South 
America ? Where ? What makes you think so ? 

f. Judging from the distribution of railroads and cities, which is 
the most advanced of the South American countries? 

g. Note the character of its coast. Where are there large com¬ 
mercial centers or cities? What other industries should thrive 
in South America? 

h. Your problem for tomorrow’s study will be: Read the text to 
find out where you guessed wrong. 


To the Observers: 

What evidence have you to show that this sort of work is or is not 
more interesting and more real than that of getting the same in¬ 
formation by reading the text? Where did the children fail in their 
deductions? Why? Name the principles that the class has not 


94 


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PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


yet mastered. Cite instances to show that the demonstrator was 
or was not able to keep from suggesting 1 answers to pupils. What 
use was made of the geographical principles in this lesson ? What 
do you like about this sort of a lesson? 

Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. Why should the children master geographical principles? 

2. Why is the deductive lesson so important in the teaching of 
geography ? 

3. In what sense is it true that when children know the geography 
of North America they know the geography of the whole world? 

4. What is meant by the statement that “principles serve as work¬ 
ing rules” or “as a means for the interpretation of further studies” ? 

5. Knowing that the Bermudas are in latitude 32 degrees North, 
in the open ocean and surrounded by warm currents, with their highest 
altitude only 260 feet, how much of their geography can you deduce ? 

6. Name the different steps in deductive thinking. Show that the 
power to think deductively is limited by a knowledge of general prin¬ 
ciples. 

7. Prepare three deductive problems for a sixth grade. Select from 
the Hahn-Lackey geography scale five exercises by which to test the 
children’s ability to think deductively. 

References: 

Holtz—Principles and Methods of the Teaching of Geography, 257; 
172-3. 

Sutherland—The Teaching of Geography, 155-9; 251-2; 244-8. 
Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 235-7. 

Hahn and Lackey—Teaching Geography and Measuring Its Results. 
Dodge—The Teaching of Geography, 86-90. 

HISTORY 

Observation Exercise 37 
(Grade V or VI) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to teach biography as a preparation for history. 

If the biographical approach to history is used in grades below the 
seventh, the teaching of biography must not be made an end; nor 
should the men and women whose biographies are to be studied be 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(92) 95 


selected in a haphazard sequence. If the teaching of biography is 
to be made a preparation for history, the men to be studied must 
be grouped about great movements and events in a way that will 
combine the materials into a continuous story. According to this 
mode of selection, Otis, Samuel Adams, Franklin, Patrick Henry, 
Jefferson, Washington, Hamilton, Pitt, and George III would be 
grouped about the American Revolution. Of course these men are 
to be studied first of all as men. Children must learn to think of 
them much as they think of their personal acquaintances, and yet 
those incidents in their lives that are related to the American Revo¬ 
lution picturing it as a continuous story should be emphasized. 

To the Demonstrator: 

As a preparation for their observation have the observers, under 
your direction, select the names of six men to be grouped about the 
movement that led to the War of 1812; have them select names of 
five men to be grouped about the troublesome times between 1816 
and 1833, caused by taxation and state rights; six names to be 
grouped about the slavery movement between 1820 and 1861. Use 
one of the four groups of men to demonstrate your method of teach¬ 
ing biography as a preparation for history. Some suggestions as to 
how to make the men real to children: (1) use abundance of con¬ 
crete details (even trivialities); (2) make the places where they 
lived real to the children and associate the men with the places 
(use pictures, maps, etc.); (3) study their pictures (as many as are 
available) and pictorial illustrations; (4) read contemporary litera¬ 
ture, especially letters, diaries, and personal reminiscences; (5) have 
pupils compose dramas based upon historical material and afterward 
act them; (6) let children imagine that they live at the time these 
men lived and where they lived and have them write letters using real 
historical material to some imaginary friend far removed from the 
historical scene; (7) have the children keep diaries, recording what 
they might have seen and heard of the men had they lived at the 
time and place they did; (8) have the children learn and recite 
famous speeches or sayings; (9) have children impersonate men and 
women who are being studied by writing letters such as they might 
have written to one another, by writing diaries such as they might 
have kept, and by quoting them concerning the events to be empha¬ 
sized; (10) improvise historical pageants based on the story of the 
event about which the men are grouped and let them appear in the 
part they played. 

To the Observers: 

(a) What determined the selection and grouping of the men studied? 

(b) What was emphasized in the life of each man? (c) What 
special devices were used to make the men real to the children? 


96 (93) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(d) Cite instances to show that the children had a more or less 
correct idea of the whole event about which the men they studied 
were grouped after they had finished the biographies of the entire 
group, (e) What is the teacher’s aim in the teaching of biography? 
(f) What evidence have you to offer to show that the men studied 
were or were not made real characters to the clyldren ? 

Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. What is the purpose of teaching biography in grades below the 
seventh ? 

2. How must the men whose biographies are to be studied be 
selected in order to accomplish this purpose? 

3. Name the group of men that should be studied as a preparation 
for the history of the discovery and exploration of America; for the 
history of the thirteen colonies; for the history of African slavery in 
America; for the history of the period of reconstruction following the 
Civil War. 

4. Give three reasons why it is better to begin with the study of 
biography than with the study of history. 

5. Name a number of ways by which the men and women whose 
biographies are to be studied can be made real characters to the children. 

6. What is the danger in using special devices in an attempt to 
make the past real? 

7. In the teaching of biography what is to be emphasized ? 

References: 

Pittman—Successful Teaching in Rural Schools, 91-100. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 449-55; 457; 417-72; 

482-3. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 213-220. 

Johnson—The Teaching of History, 161-176. 

Wayland—How to Teach American History, 143-151. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 208-9. 


Observation Exercise 38 
(Grammar Grades) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How history may be made real. 

After reading over 300,000 answers written by seventh and eighth 
grade pupils to questions covering the common subject matter of 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(94) 97 


five modern texts for grammar grades, the writer of this course 
needs no further proof to know that much of our history teaching 
in the elementary school begins and ends in empty words and 
phases. He has first-hand information to prove that Professor 
Johnson is right when he says, “Precisely here lies the root of our 
worst offending in teaching history to children. We begin early in 
the grades a liberal use of vague adjectives and of broad generaliza¬ 
tions. We deal in summary notions, in abstractions, in figures of 
speech, sometimes unconsciously, more often under the delusion 
that short headings of short chapters made of short sentences of 
short words shorten the difficulties of historical instruction’’. In the 
light of the 300,000 answers written by children who received our in¬ 
struction, the writer is justified in saying that the most timely ques¬ 
tion that can be asked concerning the teaching of history in the 
grammar grades is, “How can history be made real”? An attempt 
will be made to answer this question in this demonstration lesson. 

To the Demonstrator: 

(Use any of the following means.) 

1. Establish exact time and place relations. An event cannot be 
real unless it is related to other events and can be located 
geographically. 

2. Have the observers under your direction, a day or two before the 
demonstration lesson is to be given, select twelve technical his¬ 
torical terms such as explorations, colonization, Puritans, local 
government, representative government, limited suffrage, taxa¬ 
tion without representation, protective tariff, state rights, lib¬ 
eral construction of the Constitution, etc. Ask the children to 
write the meaning of the twelve terms selected and have the 

observers study their definitions to determine whether the terms 

* 

have real meaning to the class. Take the two terms that mean 
the least to the children and illustrate for the observers how 
their meaning can be developed. Conduct a short drill exercise 
on the meaning of terms already explained. (Without the mean¬ 
ing of technical terms history cannot be real to children.) 

3. In almost every community there is some concrete material 

illustrative of large historical events or movements. If properly 

cared for and promptly returned, this material is available for 
class use. The effort required to assemble it has its reward in 
the touch of reality it gives the movement. Illustrate its use if 
the subject matter of the demonstration lesson permits. 

4. The past should be studied as an explanation of the present and 

not for its own sake. The present is more real to* the children 

than the past. Showing a relationship between the two always 
adds reality and concreteness to history. Illustrate as em¬ 
phatically as possible this means of making the past real- 


98 (95) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


5. Appreciation through participation adds reality to the past. For 
the children to play that they are cave men, cliff dwellers, 
Indians, signers of the Declaration of Independence, members of 
the Constitutional Convention, delegates to a political conven¬ 
tion, etc., puts real meaning into the words and phrases of the 
text. Reinstating the past through participation or dramatiza¬ 
tion assures correct interpretation and historical reality. Do 
not fail to use this means in your demonstration lesson. 

6. The study of home history (local groups and their social inter¬ 
dependence) gives a concrete basis for the study of larger social 
groups, or national history. 

7. Working out cause-and-effect relations in history (putting re¬ 
lated events together in story form) makes history real. There 
is no better way to give life and reality to the past. (See Ob¬ 
servation Exercise 39.) 

8. Historical pageants have great possibilities for making the past 
real. Have the class and the observers together plan a short 
pageant-play based on the events discussed in the demonstration 
lesson or on events to be reviewed. Much drilling is not neces¬ 
sary. 

9. Make use of abundance of details. Concrete details stimulate the 
sense of reality and result in vivid pictures of the past. The 
text is a mere outline of events which must be filled in and made 
real by much detailed description. 

10. For special devices to add a touch of reality to the past see 
the list given in Observation Exercise 37. 


To the Observers: 

(a) What is the most pressing need in the teaching of history today? 

(b) What means were used in the demonstration lesson to make 
history real? Which was the most effective? Why? (c) In what 
way were the time and place relations of the events in the lesson 
established? (d) What was the class score on the test on technical 
terms? What does this test indicate? (e) With what present-day 
issue were the events in the lesson associated? What effect did 
the reference to the present have on the class? (f) Did the teacher 
attempt to reinstate the past through participation or dramatiza¬ 
tion? Tell what was done and describe its effect on the attitude 
the children took toward the events of the lesson, (g) In what way 
were the events of the lesson worked up into story form? Did this 
lesson prepare the children for the next event? (h) Describe other 
methods or devices the teacher used in making the past real. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(96) 99 s 


Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. What evidence does the writer introduce to show that the great¬ 
est short coming* of history teachers is their failure to make the past real ? 

2. Make a list of all the methods and devices teachers may use to 
make history real. Which of these assisted you most in the study of 
history? 

3. Why can an event not be real to one who cannot give the time 
or place relation ? Emerson called ‘time’ and ‘place' the two eyes of 
history. Why is the expression appropriate ? 

4. What is the value of a historical museum ? 

. 

5. If the past should explain the present, how much of the present 
should the pupils know before they begin to study the past? Would the 
seventh grade teacher be justified in studying the present a short time 
before the advanced book is begun? Why? 

6. What is meant by ‘the appreciation of the past through partici¬ 
pation’? (See Miss Dopps.) 

7. Beginning with the Treaty of Paris in 1763, let one-half of the 
class list and arrange all the events that have to do with the cause of the 
American Revolution in the order of cause and effect and then study the 
events until they can give them fluently from beginning to end as an 
interesting story. Let the other half of the class work up all the events 
that caused the War of 1812, beginning with the Treaty of 1783, into 
story form. Let each tell its story to the other. 

8. Plan a short pageant-play that can be given in a rural school. 

9. Where can the teacher get an abundance of concrete historical 
details for her history classes ? 

References: 

Pittman—Successful Teaching in Rural Schools, 99-105. 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 414-21; 423-32; 434-40; 

490-2. 

Wayland—How to Teach American History, 98-105; 126-41; 152-60; 

161-8. 

Freeland—Modern Elementary School Practice, 186; 144-54; 356-9; 
57-9; 400. 

Johnson—The Teaching of History, 202-23; 225-39; 241-68. 

Wilson & Wilson—Motivation of School Work, 101-2; 103-9; 109-17; 
127. 


100 (97) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 222-3; 225-6. 

Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 241-2; 249-51; 259-62; 
263-4. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 211-29. 

Observation Exercise 39 
(Grammar Grades) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How to use the story method in teaching history. 

The easiest and most effective way of making history real is by ar¬ 
ranging related events in the order of cause and effect and weaving 
them all into a continuous story. The events are easily remembered 
because they are associated with each other through their meaning. 
The fact that the various events in the series are associated with 
each other through their meaning gives reality to the whole move¬ 
ment. Not only is the past made real by the story method, but it 
is also made intensely interesting. The interest in the story is 
cumulative. After the children have once gotten fairly into the 
movement they can be led to anticipate what will happen next and 
then use the text merely as a reference book for verification. The 
building up of the story becomes a sort of a game in which the chil¬ 
dren take great delight. 

To the Demonstrator: 

1. Have the observers, a day or two before the observation lesson, 
select from the Hahn history scales three exercises in which chil¬ 
dren are asked to arrange a series of events in the order of cause 
and effect. Give the test to the class whose work they will 
observe later and have the observers find the class average on 
the test and compare it with the standard given in the scale. 

2. The following events are all a part of the story of the cause of 
the American Revolution. Let the observers arrange them in 
the order of cause and effect: The Declaration of Independence; 
Boston Tea Party; Stamp Act; Canada and the territory east of 
the Mississippi acquired from France by England; Stamp Act 
Congress; the newly acquired territory was to be defended by 
keeping an English army in America; Townshend Acts Passed; 
Stamp Act Repealed; Boston Massacre; First Continental Con¬ 
gress; Intolerable Acts; Committees of Correspondence; Second 
Continental Congress; Battles of Bunker Hill and Lexington. 
After the events have been arranged in sequence of cause and 
effect by the observers, give the class a day or two to work them 
up into an interesting story. The pupils will need to read sup¬ 
plementary books on each event and talk about it until they 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(98) 101 


fairly get into the fight themselves and the whole movement 
becomes real to them. When they can tell the story of the cause 
of the American Revolution from its beginning to the adoption 
of the Declaration of Independence in an interesting way, let 
them tell it to the observers as an illustration of the Story 
Method in teaching history. (Any large movement in history 
should be worked up into story form. If the above story does not 
fit into the work of the class, perhaps one of the following stories 
will: the discovery of America; the cause of the War of 1812; 
the extension of suffrage; the cause of the Civil War; Negro 
slavery in America; taxation; state rights; the building of rail¬ 
roads; etc.) After the children have learned to tell the story 
well, let them work out an appropriate cover and bind it in 
booklet form. 

To the Observers: 

(a) What is the purpose of the Story Method in the teaching of 
history? (b) How did the class average compare with the stand¬ 
ard on the test you gave the class? (c) Make a list of all the 
events that were described in the story that the children told in 
class. (d) Find out from the teacher just how much time the 
children devoted to the preparation of the story, her methods of 
motivating the work, and what effect such work has on the attitude 
of the class towards the study of history. When the story is in 
booklet form, be sure to examine the work again, (e) Prove that 
the children were or were not interested in the work, (f) Cite in¬ 
stances to show that the whole movement was or was not real to 
the children, (g) What did you like best about the Story Method 
as you saw it worked out in practice? 

Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. Describe the Story Method in teaching history. 

2. Name its strong points; its weak points. 

3. Why are the events, when woven into story form, easily remem¬ 
bered ? Why is the past likely to be real when taught in story form ? 

4. What makes history intensely interesting to children when 
taught in story form ? 

5. How may a teacher find out whether her class is strong or weak 
in cause-and-effect relations in history? 

6. Let each member of the normal training class work out a history 
story as suggested in Observation Exercise 39 and tell it to the class. 
(Each student should have a different story.) 


102 (99) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


7. Let the class as a whole select three large movements and ar¬ 
range all the events related to each movement In the order of cause and 
effect. 

References: 

Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 246-8; 252-8. 

Johnson—The Teaching of History, 33; 49; 175-6; 197; 361-5. 
Wayland—How to Teach American History, 26; 182-88; 189-95; 
294-301; 315; 316. 

Observation Exercise 40 

(Grammar Grades) 

Observers’ Problem: 

How time relations in history may be taught. 

Time and place relations of events in history must be learned by 
children. This does not mean that the exact date of each event must 
be memorized. Too much drilling on isolated time relations kills 
the spirit of history classes; but history without time relations is 
blind. In this lesson different methods of teaching time relations 
will be demonstrated. 

To the Demonstrator: 

1. As a preparation for their observation work have the observers, 
a day or two before their observation lesson, select five exercises 
on time relations from the Hahn history scales by which to test 
the class which they will observe later. Have them find the aver¬ 
age score of the class and compare it with the standard given in 
the scale. 

2. Only one method of teaching time relations can be illustrated 
with new subject matter; the other methods must be demon¬ 
strated in connection with reviews. It would be possible to fix 
the time of a single event by all the different methods to be 
demonstrated, but this would be emphasizing time relations all 
out of proportion. Furthermore, the nature of the event deter¬ 
mines the method to be used. Thus while it may be advisable 
to fix the time of an event in several ways occasionally, it will 
be more satisfactory for demonstration purposes to use different 
events for each method. 

3. Demonstrate as many of the following methods of fixing the 
time of historical events as time will permit: 

a. The method of giving exact dates.—The following dates 
should be memorized: 1492; 1519-22; 1607; 1619; 1620; 1754; 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(100) 103 


1763; 1765; 1775; July 4, 1776; 1777; 1781; 1783; 1787; 1788; 
1789; 1792; 1803; 1812; 1820; 1823; 1846-48; 1850; 1854; 
April 4, 1861; Jan. 1, 1863; April 9, 1865; 1867; 1877; 1898; 
1914; April 6, 1917; Nov. 11, 1918. Illustrate for the ob¬ 
servers the methods of associating exact dates and events; 
also illustrate methods of drilling on exact time relations. 

b. The method of grouping events about important dates.— 
Each of the dates given in (a) above may be used as a focal 
date about which to group events that happened within the 
same decade. As an illustration, group all the events of im¬ 
portance that happened between 1613 and 1625 about '1619’. 

c. The method of placing an event where it belongs in a series 
of cause and effect (or putting it where it belongs in a story). 
—As an illustration, place the following events in the order 
of cause and effect: The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: 
Our War with France in 1800; The Alien and Sedition Laws. 

d. The method of associating events with men who had most to 
do with them.—As an illustration, associate the purchase of 
Louisiana Territory with Jefferson, the Compromise of 1850 
with Clay, the building of the Panama Canal with Roosevelt, 
etc. 

e. The method of locating events in centuries.—As an illus¬ 
tration, the events that have to do with the exploration and 
discovery of America took place mostly in the 16th century, 
most of the colonial settlements were made in the 17th cen¬ 
tury, etc. 

f. The method of naming the period or epoch in which the 
event falls.—As an illustration, name events and have the 

class name the periods of American history to which they 

/ 

belong. 

To the Observers: 

(a) How many methods of fixing the time of an event were illus¬ 
trated in the demonstration lesson? (b) Why were different methods 
used with different events? (c) What was the average score of 
the class on the test in time relations? Does this class need more 
drill on time relations? (d) The dates given in (a) above are to 
be memorized. Why? In what respects did the drill given on 
memorizing exact dates meet the requirements of an ideal drill 
exercise? (e) What is the advantage of using focal dates about 
which to group events? (f) Show that placing an event where it 
belongs in a story establishes its time relations. Why is this one 
of the most effective methods for fixing time relations? (g) Why is 
it sufficient to say that most of the colonial settlements were made 
in the 17th century? 


104 (101) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Discussion of Methods 
Exercises 

1. Why is it necessary to learn the time relations of events in 
history ? 

2. How would you test a class to determine whether it should give 

* 

more attention to time relations ? 

3. To what extent does the method to be used in fixing the time 
of an event depend on the nature of the event? 

4. Give from memory the dates in American history that are recom¬ 
mended to be memorized. Give from memory the event that should 
be associated with each date. 

5. What events may be remembered by grouping them about the 

date ‘1803’? ‘1820’? ‘1877’? ‘1898’? 

6. Establish the time relation of each of five events *by placing each 
where it belongs in a series of cause and effect. 

7. Time relations of men and women are usually expressed in terms 
of centuries. Why is this sufficient ? 

8. What advantage is it to the student of history to be able to give 

the time relations of events in terms of large periods or epochs? 
References: 

Course of Study, Baltimore County Schools, 486-7. 

Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 258-9. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, 224-5. 

Johnson—The Teaching of History, 52-3. 

Wayland—How to Teach American History, 235-43. 


SUMMARY 

Principles of Teaching 
Functioning in 

Methods and Practices of Teaching 

The primary purpose of first semester course in professional train¬ 
ing is to develop principles of teaching in their “natural setting”. The 
observer is introduced to these principles in connection with real teaching 
situations in which alone they are useful. Meeting them as they are 
functioning naturally in purposeful teaching activities, he has a fair 
chance of understanding their real meaning and significance. It is the 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(102) 105 


use of the project method in the training of teachers. For the sake of 
emphasis and a more logical organization, they may now be separated 
from their functional relations and stated as abstractions. As such the 
observer should be familiar with them, ever remembering, however, that 
the only, excuse for knowing them is the fact that they make possible 
the teaching processes in connection with which they were first dis¬ 
covered. The following is a list of the most important principles of 
education developed in the first semester’s observation exercises. 

1. Among the most important physical factors that affect the learn¬ 
ing process are the pupils’ seats and desks and the lighting, the heating, 
the ventilation, the decorations, and the equipment of the schoolroom. 

2. A satisfactory seat and desk afford comfort to the pupil and 
make it easy for him to sit with both hips and shoulders pushed back 
and the small of the back pushed forward. See Observation Exercises 
1 and 2. 

3. The lighting of a schoolroom is favorable to the study activity 
when no light shines in the faces of the children, when the light enters 
the room so that no shadows from the hand, head or shoulders are thrown 
upon the work, when there are no cross-lights and no areas of decidedly 
different degrees of illumination and when the area of the windows is 
not less than one-fifth of the area of the floor. See Observation Exer¬ 
cise 1. 

4. For study purposes a temperature of 68 degrees is satisfactory, 
if the air contains a normal amount of moisture* and is kept moving. 
“Low temperatures with sufficient wraps are safer than high tempera¬ 
tures.” See Observation Exercise 1. 

5. “Motionless, moistureless, lifeless indoor air rests like a curse 
on the average school.” Ventilation favors the study activity when each 
child is supplied with not less than thirty cubic feet of fresh air per 
minute. For an average school room this means that a moderate current 
of fresh air would have to pass constantly into the room through a net 
opening of three square feet. See Observation Exercise 1. 

6. As essential factors in the teacher’s personal equipment may 
be named neatness in dress and appearance, a well-modulated voice, 
self-control, sincerity of purpose, health, adaptability and resourceful¬ 
ness, emotional alertness, intellectual capacity and mental initiative. 
See Observation Exercise 3. 

7. In order to save time and energy the frequently recurring details 
in the management of a school should be speedily reduced to habits. 
School situations which affect individuals rather than groups and which 
do not require uniformity in order to economize time and energy should 
be used to develop pupil responsibility and self-control. See Observation 
Exercise 3. 


106 (103) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


8. The school discipline that is based on the interaction of the 
group and the individual is the most natural and therefore the most 
effective. This means that the school as a whole, not the teacher alone, 
is the disciplinarian. Observation Exercise 3 treats of the fundamentals 
of school discipline. 

9. The assignment of lessons should stimulate purposeful activities 
on the part of the pupils. This means that lessons should be assigned 
in the form of problems and projects in such a way as to arouse the in¬ 
terest of the pupils and to give them a strong incentive to study the 
lesson. See Observation Exercise 4. 

10. The characteristics of a good problem are stated in Observation 
Exercise 4. 

11. The assignment of the lesson should motivate the study of it. 
If the subject matter is suited to the child and it is assigned in relation 
to the activities which it furthers in real life, the average child will ap¬ 
preciate the social need and will engage wholeheartedly in the study 
activity. If such a motive does not appeal to a small minority of the 
class, then, for the few, incentives extraneous to the subject matter 
must be set up. What these incentives shall be depends upon the nature 
and experience of the individuals, the kind of subject matter to be 
mastered, and the appeals used in the same situations outside of school. 
A recitation that gives assistance when it is needed, that helps pupils 
to better methods of work, that tests and reveals the progress the 
children are making, and that makes each pupil an active member of the 
group, does much in the way of motivating the work of the class. See 
Observation Exercise 4. 

12. What the teacher should do in the way of supervising study 
with or without supervised study periods is specifically stated in Obser¬ 
vation Exercise 5. 

13. The teacher’s part in the recitation is to hold the recitation to 
its purpose, to stimulate the children to carry on the different phases 
of the activity, and to present or lead the children to discover problems 
for further study. See Observation Exercise 6. 

14. The most effective means the teacher has of keeping the reci¬ 
tation moving toward its goal, of stimulating the pupils for suggestions 
as to plans and methods of procedure and for the evaluation of their 
own plans and methods, and of presenting problems, is the question. 
See Observation Exercise 6. 

15. Standardized tests are indispensable to teachers. Through their 
use teachers may know definitely what their classes should be able to 
do, what they can do in terms of the standardized tests, and, in case 
the performance is below standard, what specific abilities are lacking 
and what remedies to apply. Through these uses of standardized tests 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(104) 107 


teachers can supervise their own instruction. See Observation Exercises 
7 and 8. 

16. Standardized tests are also indispensable to teachers in the 
study of individual differences in the achievement of children in the 
same class. See Observation Exercise 9. 

17. Insofar as children have common traits and common tenden¬ 
cies, they may be instructed en masse. Insofar as children differ in 
traits and tendencies, they must be taught as individuals. This means 
that the teacher should be well versed in the commonalities and indi¬ 
vidualities of children. See Observation Exercises 10 and 11. 

18. The teacher who has general supervision of the study activity 
of a class while she hears another recite should be able to tell by 
certain characteristic appearances whether the study activity is pro¬ 
gressing satisfactorily. See Observation Exercise 12. 

19. The pupil in an ideal recitation takes part in discovering and 
formulating the problem to be solved, assumes a part of the responsi¬ 
bility of holding the recitation to its purposes, suggests plans and 
methods of procedure, helps to evaluate the plans and methods suggested 
in the light of the problem, suggests possible solutions, and helps to test 
solutions suggested. See Observation Exercise 13. 

20. Experiments have demonstrated that in an effective method 
of teaching beginners to read three more or less distinctive types of 
work are essential: (1) The major part of the time should be used in 
teaching the children to interpret the printed page. (2) Special drill 
periods should be devoted to the recognition, of words at sight. (3) To 
develop independence in the recognition of words, special attention should 
be given to phonetic analysis and synthesis. See Observation Exercise 14. 

21. The development of fundamental habits and associations on 
which fluent reading depends requires much more practice than children 
in the lower grades commonly receive. How to give the children the 
much needed practice is illustrated in Observation Exercise 15. 

22. In the upper grades the ability to interpret the printed page 
accurately and readily depends largely upon a knowledge of the meaning 
of words. Beginning with the third grade, special attention should be 
given to the acquisition of a reading vocabulary. See Observation 
Exercise 16. 

23. Oral reading as a purposeful activity requires an audience. The 
reader knows that he is reading to persons who want to know what the 
printed page is about, and his motive is to interpret the printed page for 
them. The reading and listening are both motivated. How to make oral 
reading in school such a purposeful activity is illustrated in Observation 
Exercise 17. 

24. The ability necessary to do creditable work in any school sub¬ 
ject is not an indivisible unity but rather a divisible complexity. The 


108 (105) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


general ability is composed of a number of lesser abilities each of which 
may be isolated from the complex and developed separately. Teachers 
should be conscious of the elements in the complex for two reasons. 
(1) Knowing what specific abilities are necessary to develop the complex 
ability, teachers will be able to develop the latter more economically 
and more successfully in the case of a larger number of pupils. (2) 
When failures do occur they will be able to discover the specific causes 
for such failures and then apply specific remedies. The development of 
silent reading abilities is treated in Observation Exercises 18 and 19; 
arithmetic abilities in Observation Exercises 20, 21, 24, and 25; compo¬ 
sition abilities in Observation Exercises 26 and 29; geography abilities 
in Observation Exercises 31, 32, 33, 35 and 36; history abilities in 
Observation Exercises 39 and 40. 

25. Much of the work in school is concerned with the repetition of 
facts and processes until they become automatic. The teacher is always 
in danger of killing the spirit of her school in conducting drill lessons. 
To lessen this danger the teacher must be able to do two things: 
(1) She must be able to develop habits with the least number of repeti¬ 
tions, and (2) she must be able to motivate strongly all drill lessons. 
The drill exercise as a distinct type of teaching is discussed in Observa¬ 
tion Exercises 14 and 22, and indirectly in Exercises 16, 28, 29, 33 and 40. 

26. Children naturally are impulsive in their thinking; the school 
must teach them to be reflective. One type of reflective thinking is 
inductive; another type is deductive. Children should be trained in both. 
The inductive lesson is treated in Observation Exercises 23, 30, 34 and 
35; the deductive lesson in Exercises 24, 25 and 36. 

27. A rule to be of any use to children in solving problems in arith¬ 
metic must be developed by them inductively. The technique of de¬ 
veloping and formulating rules in arithmetic is described in Observation 
Exercise 23. 

28. The ability to solve problems in arithmetic is complex. At 
least four specific abilities are involved in the general activity of solving 
problems. What these are and how they are to be developed are shown 
in Observation Exercises 24 and 25. 

29. Composition work should be done in its “natural setting”. It 
is never done otherwise outside of school and should not be in school. 
How to teach composition facts in connection with situations in which 
they are needed is set forth in Observation Exercise 26. 

30. A graduate of the elementary school should possess four abili¬ 
ties essential in the writing of a paragraph. (1) He should be able to 
use words with considerable discrimination. (2) He should be able to 
write clear,' unified sentences. (3) He should have mastered the tech¬ 
nique of paragraph structure. (4) He should know the mechanical 
facts involved in the writing of a paragraph. See Observation Exer¬ 
cise 27. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(106) 109 


31. The school must provide exercises for the correction of wrong 
language habits. It is the only subject in which there is so much 
reforming to be done. In the lower grades this phase of composition is 
as important as the teaching of new language facts. Observation Exer¬ 
cise 28 is devoted to the principles involved in the correction of language 
habits. 

32. Technical grammar treats of facts that are useful in life activi¬ 
ties. Only such facts as are useful should be taught in the elementary 
school, and they should be taught in their functional relations. See 
Observation Exercise 30. 

33. The geography text is introduced into the school at a time 
when the children have had as yet no training in reading the type of 
subject matter it contains. Nor have they had training in silent read¬ 
ing in the specific ways in which it must be used in the study of geog¬ 
raphy. The first concern of the geography teacher, therefore, is to 
instruct the children how to read the informational type of subject matter 
and to develop certain specific abilities in silent reading. See Observa¬ 
tion Exercise 31. 

34. Realism in education is the crying need of the hour. Children 
memorize text books and recite to teachers from memory! But do they 
know the meaning? How to make textbooks real and meaningful ta 
children is the subject of Observation Exercises 32 and 38. 

35. To succeed well in the study of geography a pupil must know 
“home geography” in terms of textbook language, must know place 
relations, must know the important principles of geography, and must 
know how to use these principles in the further acquisition of geographi¬ 
cal knowledge. For the development of the last three abilities, see 
Observation Exercises 33, 35 and 36 respectively. 

36. Learning a fact or process in connection with a situation in 
which it is useful is project work. The technique of project-problem 
instruction is discussed in Observation Exercise 36. 

37. Below the seventh grade biography should not be taught as 
such, but as a preparation for history. See Observation Exercise 37. 

38. The best way to teach the cause-and-effect relation in history is 
to teach the events in story form. In other words, project work in his¬ 
tory consists of learning each event in its “natural setting”. The story 
method of teaching history is described in Observation Exercise 39. 

39. To fully understand an event in history it is necessary to know 
its time relations. There are different ways in which a pupil may learn 
the time of an event. These are discussed in Observation Exercise 40. 


110 (107) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


PART II 

Principles and Types of Teaching 


Introductory 

This section of the Course in Professional Training surveys the pre¬ 
vious sections of the Course from the standpoint of the principles and 
types of teaching. 

The normal training students have studied “the educative process” 
in its practical and concrete setting. They have watched pedagogy 
functioning in a real situation. But, for observations and experiences to 
be worth while—to function in further experience—they must furnish 
forms and principles which can be used to guide intelligent action. This, 
then, is the plan—to abstract from the observations which the student 
has made: 

First, those principles which guided the teaching he observed; 

Second, the types or forms of teaching thru which the results in¬ 
tended were attained. 

But abstractions and forms alone will not satisfy. Mere theorizing 
is the sin of the inefficient and impractical. These principles and forms 
must be reset in the practical situation. This is attempted through the 
lesson plan and the practice of teaching. Thus the circle is completed; 
the principles and types of teaching, discovered in the teaching observed, 
are abstracted from these situations and studied as abstractions and 
finally are again applied to the practical, concrete situation in lesson 
plans and in teaching from these lesson plans. 

No attempt has here been made at a refined analysis of the teach¬ 
ing process. Such would be out of place in a course like this. In con¬ 
sequence, the whole analysis is purposely crude. 

The principles stated in the summary of the “Methods and Practices 
of Teaching”, together with the “Observation Lessons” referred to in the 
statement of those principles, are to be reviewed and studied as an 
essential part of this section of the course. Such review, together with 
the pupils’ readings (which readings are the most practical and the 
simplest that can be cited, consistent with scientific accuracy), furnishes 
a rigorous resurvey of the material previously studied. 

The Advanced Readings are optional and are selected for the benefit 
and the guidance of the teacher. They may occasionally be assigned 
to the exceptional student. 



PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(108) 111 


It is during this part of the Professional Training Course that the 
student should be introduced to practice teaching. A minimum of 
twenty-four periods of from twenty to thirty minutes each (depending 
upon the length of grade class periods in local school) is the minimum 
amount of practice teaching required. Teachers and superintendents 
directing the practice teaching of normal training students should make 
a careful study of Nutts’ “The Supervision of Instruction”, published by 
Houghton Mifflin Company, Chicago. In it will be found many valuable 
suggestions. No student should be permitted to practice teaching 
without very carefully working out a plan of the lesson he is to teach, 
which plan should be approved both by the normal training teacher and 
by the teacher of the class room in which the student undertakes to teach 
the lesson planned. 

Suggested Lesson Distribution 


The Lesson Plan. 

The Information Lesson... 

The Drill Lesson.. 

The Thought Lesson. 

The Appreciation Lesson 
The Review Lesson.. 


One week 
Two weeks 
One week 
Two weeks 
One week 
One week 


TYPES OF TEACHING 

“There are several ways at the teacher’s disposal by which he may 
lead his pupils to the results desired through education. Since educa¬ 
tion includes the accomplishing of many and varied ends, it is to be ex¬ 
pected that the stimuli or agencies used by the teacher will vary, that 
form of exercise being employed at a given time which is best adapted 
to secure the object desired at that particular time.”. 

“It is not to be understood that these types of teaching occur in 

isolation and that they cannot be combined during a class exercise. 

The hope encouraged here is that making the teacher conscious of these 
forms and the purposes served by each will cause him to employ them 
more intelligently and more effectively, to the great advantage of the 
pupils in his class.”* 


Lesson Plans 

Problem: 

People engaged in any productive enterprise must have a plan of 
procedure. A plan compels us to think where we are going and to 
lay down the most economical way of getting there. This setting of 
a goal in a particular lesson and outlining of a method of attaining to 
that goal is the problem of this lesson. In this problem, four more 
or less distinct phases can be detected and abstracted. 


♦Earhart—Types of Teaching. 













112 (109) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


1. What shall be taught? (Subject matter.) 

2. Why shall this particular subject matter be taught? (Purpose— 
teacher’s aim.) 

3. How shall this subject matter be taught? (Method—Pupil’s 
problem.) 

4. Did the pupils learn what the plan intended they should learn? 
Was the purpose realized? (Test of results.) 

Outline of Problem: 

Need for Planning—Changing Subject Matter—New Knowledge— 
Reset Old Knowledge—Orderly Procedure—Types of Pupils—Chang¬ 
ing Classes—Inspiration is a Result of Preparation—Detailed Plan 
—Brief Plan. 

Subject Matter—Relation to Preceding and Succeeding Lessons— 
Determined by Teacher’s Aim—Psychological versus Logical Organ¬ 
ization—Sequence—Subordination—Problems Involved — References 
—Illustrative Material. 

Procedure—Determined by Pupil’s Problems—“Point of Contact”— 
Preview—Progress (Questions; projects; illustrations; devices; 
drills; summaries)—Pupil’s Expression—Tests of Results—New As¬ 
signments. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Why should a dressmaker cut out a pattern before cutting out 
the goods ? 

2. “The conditions of battle are constantly changing.” Then why 

should a military commander write a plan of battle ? 

3. Mess sergeants are required to submit menus for all meals 
twenty-four hours previous to their preparation. Why do you 
suppose this is required? 

4. “We cannot plan our lessons intelligently until we know how 

Nature planned the children.” Explain. 

5. “He who attempts to teach arithmetic to the child will probably 
fail, but he who attempts to teach the child arithmetic will likely 
succeed.” Explain. 

What is the difference between the detailed lesson plan and the 
brief lesson plan? What is the value of the detailed lesson 
plan? To what extent should the rural teacher prepare detailed 
lesson p’ans ? 


6. 



PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(110) 113 


7. Is a teacher ever justified in appearing before her class without 
a lesson plan (preparation)? Why? 

8. What should be the maximum amount of time (how large a 
lesson unit) a single lesson plan should cover? 

9. Write a detailed lesson plan for teaching the reading lessons now 
being taught to the first grade in your school. 

10. Write a detailed lesson plan for teaching the number lessons 
now being taught to the third grade. 

11. Write a detailed lesson plan for teaching the geography or 
hygiene lessons now being taught to the fifth grade. 

12. Rewrite the above detailed lesson plans as brief lesson plans. 

Pupils’ Readings: 

Review—Observation Exercises 3, 4, 6, 10, 11. 

Review—Summary of Principles: 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 17, and observa¬ 
tion lessons referred to therein. 

• 

Earhart—Types of Teaching, Chap. XV, Appendix. 

LaRue—The Science and Art of Teaching, Chap. XVII. 

Advanced Readings: 

Strayer—Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chap. XVI. 


THE INFORMATION LESSON 

Problem: 

The child is a “wondering” animal, actively and passively acquiring 
experience. How this experience is acquired, that is, how mental 
material is collected and combined, is our problem. 

Outline of Problem: 

Pupils’ Problems—Mind and Matter (mental and environmental)— 
Image—Sense Experience—Perception and Idea—Sensation Types 
(visual; auditory; tactual motor, etc.)—Sense Training—Associa¬ 
tion (laws of association—contiguity; likeness; contrast; recency; 
frequency; intensity; mental attitude; individual difference)—Apper¬ 
ception—Motor Response—Speech Response—Active Requirement— 
Learning by Symbols. 

Teachers’ Problems—Teachers’ Preparation—Relation to Thought 
L,esson—Directed Observation—Motivating Observation—Seasonable 


114 (111) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Observation—Material for Observation—Socializing Effort—From 

Object to Symbol (word)—Individual Differences—“Objects before 

Wo r d s ”—Vocabulary and Experience—-“Facts before Principles”— 

“Concrete before Abstract”—Writing as Perceptual Learning—Read¬ 
ing as Perceptual Learning. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Why does the baby call every furry thing “kitty”? 

2. One child called a fern “a pot of green feathers”. Why? 

3. A child called her first taste of pickle “hot”. Why? 

4. Children often make humorous statements because of faulty ap¬ 
perception. Give examples. Humorists exploit clever as well as 
faulty apperceptions. Give examples. 

5. What is the first thing that comes to your mind on the mention 
of the word “note” ? Can you explain this ? 

6. Do you find Mr. La Rue’s explanations clear? Why? Do you 
think Mr. La Rue is a good class room teacher? Why? 

7. Are you “eye-minded”, “ear-minded”, “touch and movement 
minded”, or of the “mixed” type ? From your observation have 
you discovered these particular types ? 

8. How does an eye-minded person learn to spell ? An ear-minded 
person? A tactual-motor-minded? 

9. How can a child get the idea that a cow and a cat are about the 
same size? Can this idea be gotten from the lower grade 
readers in your school? 

10. The writer once discovered a class of three children of foreign 
parentage who had “read” through the primer and part of the 
first reader and yet could not tell the names in English of ob¬ 
jects pictured in the book. How was this possible ? What was 
wrong with the teacher? 

11. A bird is the object of study. One teacher says, “Now children, 
study this bird and tell us all about it in your composition 
lesson”. What is wrong? Another teacher writes six specific 
questions on the blackboard, calling attention to as many specific 
things about the bird and then says, “From what you learn 
through these questions about the bird, tell us all you can in your 
composition lesson”. What is “right” ? What is “wrong” ? 
Improve on these assignments by writing detailed lesson plan for 
this lesson. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(112) 115 


12. Write a detailed lesson plan for teaching mining to a fifth grade 
class. How will you be sure that pupils understand the essential 
parts of a mine? Does your plan consider all the factors in the 
outline of the problem? 

13. Write a detailed lesson plan for a silent reading lesson in sixth 
grade history (use lessons now being taught). 

14. Write a detailed lesson plan for silent reading lesson in the 
fourth grade. Do the pupils have clear images and clear ideas 
of that about which they are reading? 

15. Teach at least one lesson involving the study of some object. 

16. Teach at least one lesson that involves the acquisition of knowl¬ 
edge from the printed page. You have failed unless the pupils 
have clear images and clear ideas of what you are trying to 
teach. 

17. What were the most difficult problems with which you met in 
teaching the information lesson? 

18. Was your teaching “good teaching” as judged by the knowledge 
you have gained from the information lesson ? 

Pupils’ Readings: 

Review—Observation Exercises: 14, 16, 28, 33, 37, 40. 

Review—Summary of Principles: 22, 31, 34, 35, 37. 

La Rue—The Science and Art of Teaching, Chaps. VI-VIII, pp. 
157-61. 

Earhart—Types of Teaching, Chap. VII. 

Advanced Readings:. 

Freeman—How Children Learn, Chap. IX. 

Freeman—Psychology of the Common Branches, Chaps. III-V in¬ 
clusive. 


THE DRILL LESSON 

Problem: 

We have studied in the previous lesson how the mind takes in and 
combines raw material from contact with its environment. Our next 
problem is to find how the mind organizes this raw material for 
future use and then how it uses this material which it has worked 
over into memory associations, habits and skills. 


116 (113) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Outline of Problem: 

Memory—Function—Clear Images—Laws of Association—Memories 
versus Memory — Logical Memory — Rote Memory — Memorizing 
(learning for recall)—Rules for Memorizing—Function of Drill— 
Motivating Drill—Drill and the Laws of Association—Memory as 
Habit—Individual Differences. 

Habit and Skill—Function—Levels of Learning—Sensori-motor 
Learning—Trial and Error (success) Method-Selection and In¬ 

hibition of Movement—Co-ordination of Movement—Imitation of 
Form and Movement—Progressive Repetition—Intelligent Practice— 
Motivating Drill — Accuracy—Facility — Repetition — Plateaus in 
Learning—Confidence and Skill—Laws of Habit Formation—Self- 
direction of Habits—Habits and Character—Memory as Habit— 
Writing as Sensori-motor Learning—Spelling as Fixing of Asso¬ 
ciations. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. ‘‘We learn to do by doing.” What kind of doing? 

2. “Practice makes perfect.’’ What kind of practice? 

3. Perform again the “stunts” given under “THE WRITING PRO¬ 
CESS”, Normal Training Courses of Study (Bulletin B). Is it 
easy for a child to learn to write ? Why ? 

4. Can you learn to cook by reading the cook book? Can you learn 
to play ball by reading Spalding’s Rules ? Why not ? Can you 
learn to talk a foreign language by reading it and translating it? 
“We are a bundle of walking habits.” Do you think so? Why? 

5. Study exercises in La Rue, especially the first ten in Chapter IX. 

6. Which shoe do you put on first in the morning? How do you 
hold your knife, fork, and spoon, at the table? Do you “hump” 
over at the table when you eat? How do you ordinarily sit— 
erect, stooped, bending sidewise, hips forward, feet crossed ? Do 
you talk in a loud tone, low tone, rasping tone? How do you 
laugh ? Do you speak in words that have a clear and definite 
meaning, or are you so mentally lazy as to “slide into slang”? 
Are you calm? Do you “fly off the handle”? Do you pout? 
Do you practice being decent to people you don’t like? Do you 
walk mincingly, lazily, bob up and down, drag your feet, stride? 
Do you stand erect? Twist your ankles out? Do you keep your 
fingernails clean? Hair clean and neatly combed? Body clean? 
Clothing neat? Shoes shined? Do you study consistently, or let 
your mind wander? Do you read something good each day? 
What do these things indicate as to the part habit plays in every 
day life? Look again at the quotation in Problem 4. 



PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(114) 117 


7. Write a detailed lesson plan for the memorizing of The Cham¬ 
bered Nautilus by the eighth grade. Did you take into considera¬ 
tion the rules for memorizing? Teach this lesson if possible. 

8. Which of levels of learning do you use in learning this lesson? 

9. Write a detailed lesson plan for a drill on phonics for the first 
or second grade. 

10. Reduce the above plans to the brief form. 

11. Summarize the essentials of a drill lesson. 

12. Freeman gives these rules for memorizing:* 

First rule: Get the meaning clearly in mind. 

Second rule: Make as many repetitions as are necessary to fix the arbitrary asso¬ 
ciations. 

Third rule: Continue the repetitions beyond the threshold. 

Fourth rule: Distribute the repetitions. 

Fifth rule: Attempt to recall during learning. 

Sixth rule: Make the first perusal with especial care. 

Seventh rule: Avoid false associations. 

Eighth rule: Learn under some pressure. 

Apply these rules in your study. Do you find they help you? 


Pupils’ Readings: 

Review—Observation Exercises: 3, 7, 8, 9, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 
27, 29, 31, 40. 

Review—Summary of Principles: 7, 15-16, 20, 24, 25, 31, 39. 

La Rue—The Science and Art of Teaching, Chaps. VIII; IX; XII; 
pages 128-36; 143-8; 175-7. 

Earhart—Types of Teaching, Chaps. XII-XIII. 


Advanced Readings: 

Freeman—How Children Learn, Chaps. VIII; X. 

Freeman—Psychology of the Common Branches, Chap. VI. 
Strayer and Norsworthy—How to Teach, Chaps. IV-V. 

Strayer—Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chaps. IV; IX. 


THOUGHT LESSON 

Problem: 

When we get into a novel situation or predicament from which our 
customary ways of acting and thinking (instinct and habit) cannot 
extricate us, consciousness comes to the rescue and begins to hunt 
(think) a way out. This hunting (thinking) a way out of a predica¬ 
ment is our problem. This problem has two rather specific phases. 


*Freeman—How Children Learn. 







118 (115) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


First, finding a general principle that will explain the facts we have 
to deal with. 

Second, if this general principle is true, what will be the result in a 
particular case—what can we safely predict? 

Outline of Problem: 

Thinking—The Predicament (problem)—Analysis and Synthesis— 
Relation to Memory—Relation to Imagination—Clear Images—Clear 
Ideas (concepts)—Definition—Spontaneous Thinking—Critical Think¬ 
ing (reasoning)—Types of Thinking (inductive; deductive)—Scien¬ 
tific Method [Problem—Collecting Facts (experiment; observations) 
—Organizing Facts (comparison; abstraction)—Guessing (hypothe¬ 
sis; inference; generalization)—Testing the Guess (application; veri¬ 
fication)—Prediction 1. 

Training in Thinking—(A) Inductive Lesson—Formal Steps [Pre¬ 
sentation (problem; related knowledge)—Preparation (new facts; 
examples; experiments)—Comparison (organization; abstraction)— 
Generalization (hypothesis; explanation)!—Place in Teaching (es¬ 
tablishing rules; principles; causes). (B) Deductive Lesson—Fifth 
Step in Reasoning (application of explanations; predicting conse¬ 
quences)—Formal Steps [Problem—Determining essential factors— 
Inference (prediction)—Verification (and application)]—Relation to 
Inductive Lesson—Place in Teaching (proving rules; applying prin¬ 
ciples; constructing definitions; predicting events and results). 
(C) General—Imitation in Learning to Think—Thinking in Symbols 
—Necessity of Adequate Information—Effect of Prejudice—Sus¬ 
pended Judgment—Testing Results. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Study problems in La Rue, Chapter X. 

2. State a good definition of a definition. Should pupils memorize 
definitions found in a book. 

3. I predict that a war between France and England will follow the 
colonization of America. Upon what do I base my prediction? 
What kind of reasoning do I follow? 

4. How does the weather bureau reason in predicting the weather? 
What facts and principles are used? 

5. “Scientific prediction is sane prophecy.” Explain. 

6. From observation of words like relieve, believe, receive, deceive, 
conceive, formulate a rule for the “ie” or “ei”. What type of 
thinking is here used ? 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING (116) 119 

7 Write a detailed lesson plan for teaching a rule in spelling (in¬ 
ductively). A rule for forming the plural of certain words. 

8. Write a detailed lesson plan for teaching the proper placing of 
the decimal point in the multiplication of decimals. 

9. Write a detailed lesson plan for teaching deductively the fact 
that there is little rain immediately east of the Rocky Mountains 
(pupils have not studied the Western States). 

10. Write a detailed lesson plan for developing definitions of the 
transitive and intransitive verbs. 

11. Teach at least one inductive lesson from a formal lesson plan. 

12 Teach at least one deductive lesson from a formal lesson plan. 

13. What type of thinking do you use most in your physics? 

14. Is it fun to “think things out”? 

Pupils’ Readings: 

Review—Observation Exercises: 13, 23, 24, 25, 30, 36, 39. 

Review—Summary of Principles: 19, 26, 27, 28, 38. 

La Rue—The Science and Art of Teaching, pages 16-18; 100-15; 
128-36; 161-5. 

Earhart—Types of Teaching, Chap. X. 

4 

Advanced Readings: 

Freeman—How Children Learn, Chap. XI. 

Freeman—Psychology of the Common Branches, Chaps. IX-X. 

Strayer and Norsworthy—How to Teach, Chap. V. 

Strayer—A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chaps. V-VI. 

Bagley—The Educative Process, Chap. XX. 

FEELINGS AND IMAGINATION IN THE APPRECIATION LESSON 

Problem: 

The modern aim of education is social worth—social efficiency. The 

attainment of this aim includes— 

1. The acquisition of useful knowledge. 

2. The training of a set of desirable skills, habits, abilities; the 
development of capacities for control and achievement. 

3. The development of attitudes, interests, tastes, standards, senti¬ 
ments, ideals, “the attainment of a true sense of life’s values”. 
We have studied the first and second of these problems. We now 


120 (117) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


face the third and most important of these problems: 

How to develop in the student the spirit of artistry in achieve¬ 
ment, the spirit of social service; capacities for fine apprecia¬ 
tions, high ideals of conduct.* 

Outline of Problem: 

The Feelings—Indefiniteness—An Ever Present Element—A Per¬ 
sonal Element—Feelings Evaluate—Laws of Feeling (physical con¬ 
ditions; success or failure; association with ideas; suggestion and 
imitation; bodily expression; recency; frequency; intensity; indi¬ 
vidual aptitude)—Interest (feeling) and Attention—Laws of Atten¬ 
tion (physical conditions; frequency; recency; intensity; brain set; 
mental make-up)—Feelings as Motive. 

Imagination—As Association—Relation to Memory and Thought— 
Reproductive Imagery (memory)—-Productive (constructive; inven¬ 
tive; creative) Imagery [Fanciful—Realistic (very close to thinking) 
—Idealistic (vision) 1—Imaginations versus Imagination—Imagina¬ 
tion and Feeling—Imagination and Appreciation—Geography in 
Imaginative Learning—History in Imaginative Learning—Literature 
in Imaginative Learning. 

The Appreciation Lesson—(A) Purpose—Pleasure—Control of Con¬ 
duct through Development of Attitudes, Tastes, Values, Motives, 
Ideals. (B) Means—Imagination—Contemplation—Participation. 
(C) Types—Aesthetic—Human—Humor—Intellectual. (D) Subject 
Matter—Art—Music — Literature — Geography — History — Nature 
Study—Science. (E) Methods—Knowledge the Basis—Experience 
Conditions Appreciation —i Connection with Familiar — Technique— 
Danger of Analysis—Involuntary Attention—(Spontaneous Expres¬ 
sion—Spreading of Enthusiasm by Imitation—Emotions Emerging 
in Action—Standards of Determining Worth—Passive Contemplation 
—Imaginative Participation—Active Participation. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Study problems 11 to 13 on page 104 in La Rue’s Science and 
Art of Teaching. 

2. Study exercises at close of Chapter XI in La Rue. 

3. “Show how current events can be used in the appreciation les* 
son.” (La Rue, 179.) 

4. Do you usually act the way you feel like acting or does reason 
rule your conduct? 

5. Write a detailed lesson plan for teaching appreciation of your 
favorite poem. 


*See Betts’ Classroom Method and Management. 




PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(118) 121 


6. Write a detailed lesson plan for teaching an “Appreciation Les¬ 
son” in geography. Teach this lesson if possible. 

7. Write a detailed lesson plan for teaching an “Appreciation 
Lesson” in history. 

8. Teach at least one “Appreciation Lesson”. 

9. How can you make literature “real” through imagination ? 
Geography? History? 

Pupils’ Readings: 

Review—Observation Exercises: 13, 26, 32, 38. 

Review—Summary of Principles: 19, 29, 34. 

La Rue—The Science and Art of Teaching, Chap. XI, pages 166-9. 
Earhart—Types of Teaching, Chap. X. 

Advanced Readings: 

Freeman—Psychology of the Common Branches, Chaps. VII-VIII. 
Strayer—Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chap. VII. 

Strayer and Norsworthy—How to Teach, Chaps. Ill, VIII. 

Betts—Classroom Method and Management, Chap. V. 


THE REVIEW LESSON 

Problem: 

“In the establishment of habits, the development of appreciation, or 
the growth in understanding which we seek to secure through think¬ 
ing, there will be many occasions for checking up our work. Suc¬ 
cessful teaching requires that the habit that we think we have es¬ 
tablished be called for and additional practice given from time to 
time in order to be certain that it is fixed. In like manner, the de¬ 
velopment of our thought in any field is not something which is 
accomplished without respect to later neglect. We, rather, build a 
system of thought with reference to a particular field or subject 
as a result of thinking, and rethinking through the many different 
situations which are involved. In like manner, in the field of ap¬ 
preciation the very essence of our enjoyment is to be found in the 
fact that that which we have enjoyed we recall, and strengthen our 
appreciation through the revival of the experience. The review is, 
of course, most successful when it is not simply going over the whole 
material in exactly the same way. In habit formation it is often 
advisable to arrange in a different order the stimuli which are to 
bring the desired responses, for the very essence of habit formation 
is found in the fact that the particular response can be secured re- 


122 (119) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


gardless of the order in which they are called for. In thinking, as a 
subject is developed, our control is measured by the better per¬ 
spective which we secure.” This presents the problem then 

“that in review we will not be concerned with reviving all of 
the processes through which we have passed, but, rather in a re¬ 
organization quite different from that which was originally pro¬ 
vided”.* 

Outline of Problem: 

Purposes of Reviews — Review as New View — Resetting Old 
Knowledge—Review and Expressive Learning—Review and Apper¬ 
ception—Review and “Levels of Learning”—Review and “Set”— 
Review and Laws of Association—Review and “Logical Memory”— 
Review as First Step in Thinking—Motivating Review—Reviews as 
Tests of Teaching. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. What occasion requires reviews outside of school? 

2. “How did the Appalachian Mountains affect early U. S. His¬ 
tory?” Is this a good problem for review? In solving this 
problem, what correlations of subject matter must be made ? 
Would the trained geographer solve this problem differently from 
the trained historian? Why? 

3. Study exercises at end of Chapter XIII of Earhart’s “Types of 
Teaching”. 

4. Is the making of topical outlines a good form of review? 

5. State three comprehensive problems that would occasion a 
searching review of this section (Types of Teaching) of the 
course in Professional Training. 

6. What should be the attitude toward reviews ? 

7. “Is there a science of teaching?” This is a problem requiring 
a review of your course in Professional Training up to the 
present time. Briefly outline your solution to this problem. 
(Suggestion: La Rue—The Science and Art of Teaching, Chap¬ 
ters I and II; Earhart—Types of Teaching, Chapters II and IV.) 

8. “What determines method?” This is another problem requiring 
a review like the one above. Briefly outline your solution to this 
problem. (Suggestion: La Rue—Chapter III; Earhart—Chap¬ 
ter II.) 

9. Show how the writing of a lesson plan is a splendid example 
of typical review. 

10. Make a lesson plan for a review lesson. Teach this lesson. 


♦Strayer and Norsworthy—How to Teach, MacMillan. 






PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(120) 123 


Pupils’ Readings: 

Review—Observation Exercises: 7, 8, 9, 22, 31. 

Review—Summary of Principles: 15, 16, 33. 

Earhart—Types of Teaching, Chapter XIII. 

La Rue—The Science and Art of Teaching, pages 79-87, 124-125, 
128-136, 138-143, 171-178, 206-208. 

Advanced Readings: 

Strayer—Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter IX. 
Bagley—The Educative Process, Chapter XII. 

Freeman—How Children Learn, Chapters I-VII. 


124 (121) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


PART III 

Rural School Management 


Ni 


Introductory 

This section is designed to initiate the normal trainer into some 
of the more obvious problems of rural school management. He has, 
during the first semester, observed and studied some of the problems 
of technique in management, but only those incidental to instruction. 
The problems treated in this section of the course are those broader 
problems encountered by the teacher as organizer and manager, rather 
than as instructor. 

The teacher as instructor is interested mainly in the child, the social 
inheritance of the child, and how to help the child make the most of 
his social inheritance. The problems incident thereto were treated during 
the first twenty weeks under the head of Methods and Practices of 
Teaching. 

The teacher as organizer is primarily interested in the system of 
administration, within which he functions as a social agency. As man¬ 
ager, he is mainly interested in the equipment accessory to his function 
as instructor and organizer 

These three phases of the teacher’s functions are so indiscernibly 
merged as to preclude definite distinction as to where one begins and 
the other ends. Consequently, no attempt has been made to introduce 
obscure problems fit only for the theorist and not of immediate value to 
the young practitioner. 

The Method of Treatment 

This course is consistent with the other courses of the curriculum 
in that it is organized as a series of problems. The solution of these 
problems gives the student-teacher a deeper insight into the significance 
of his work than any mere reading around a series of discussions. The 
problem is a predicament from which the student must extricate himself. 
The outline of the problem furnishes suggestions as to the way out— 
steps in the solution. The projects and related problems test the validity 
of the solution of the main problem. They are challenges to the pupil’s 
mettle, in that they threaten his conclusions. Frequent uses should be 
made of written solutions in outline form, which outlines should be the 
basis for the solution of the projects and related problems. 



PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(122) 125 


A part of the problems in sanitation and hygiene have been previ¬ 
ously studied, but they are taken up in this section of the course again 
not only as a review, but from the standpoint of the practices of the 
rural teacher. 

The problem of discipline is here considered in a much broader 
fashion than in the preceding sections of the work. An attempt has 
been made to analyze the problem in discipline and to classify the sources 
of order and disorder. 


Suggested Lesson Distribution 

I. Rural School Administration (Three weeks) 

A. The State and Education. 

B. Systems and Units of Administration. 

C. Financial Support. 

D. Supervision. 

E. Consolidation and Redistricting. 

F. School Law for Teachers. 


II. The 

A. 

B. 

C. 


D. 

III. The 

A. 

B. 


Rural School Plant (Two weeks) 

% 

The School Grounds. 

The School Buildings. 

Problems in Sanitation and Hygiene 

1. Lighting the Classroom. 

2. Heating and Ventilating. 

3. Seating the Pupils. 

4. Water Supply. 

5. The School Lunch. 

6. School Toilets. 

7. Keeping Things Clean. 

School Equipment. 

Organization of the Rural School (Three weeks) 
Preliminary Preparation. 

The First Day. 


126 


(123) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


C. Classification. 

D. The Daily Program. 

E. Reports and Records. 

F. Discipline. 

G. Play and Recreation. 

H. The Teacher and the Community. 

Inspirational Readings 

Normal training students will find the following books inspirational 
and full of practical suggestions concerning rural school problems and 
it would be well for such students to read these books: 

Mistakes in Teaching. 

(James Hughes—A. Flanagan Company, Chicago.) 

Jean Mitchell’s School. 

(Angelina W. Wray—Public School Publishing Company, 

Bloomington, Illinois.) 

Personality of the Teacher. 

(McKenney—Row-Peterson Company, Chicago.) 

The Brown Mouse. 

(Herbert Quick—Bobbs-Merrill Company, Indianapolis, Indiana.) 

Country Life and Country Schools. 

(Mabel Carney—Row-Peterson Company, Chicago.) 

The Evolution of Dodd. 

(William Hawdey Smith—Rand-McNally and Company, Chicago.) 

Phelps and His Teachers. 

(Dan V. Stephens—Hammond-Stephens, Fremont, Nebraska.) 

The Corn Lady. 

(Jessie Field—A. Flanagan Company, Chicago.) 

RURAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

“Everywhere, with us, the school arose as a distinctly local insti¬ 
tution, and to meet local needs.In all of this development, how¬ 

ever, it should be noted that the authority and power to develop have 
come from the state and not, except secondarily, from the community. 
This is an important point to be kept in mind. The school district, the 
township, the village, the city, and the county are all subordinate crea¬ 
tions of the state, erected for the purpose of better local administration. 
The state creates these subdivisions of itself and then endows them with 
their powers, and these it may add to or subtract from, within the limits 



PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(124) 127 


set by the constitution of the state, and as the best interests of the state 
may seem to require. It has been the people as a whole, represented in 
the legislature of the state, and not portions of the people here and there, 
who have been supreme in the matter of educational legislation. Such 
has been the policy of practically every state, and such a policy has the 
support of practically all of the administrative experience relating to 
public instruction which we have accumulated since we began to adopt 

education as a proper function of the state.This same view 

has also been stated, more or less clearly, in decisions of the highest 

courts in nearly every state of the Union.. 

.Ultimate state control, however, does not of necessity involve im¬ 
mediate state direction and oversight in anything. The state may dele¬ 
gate its authority, in whole or in part, to the subdivisions it creates with¬ 
in itself for purposes of local administration. As a matter of fact every 
state does so, though some do it to a much greater extent than do others. 

.To carry out this more or less clearly conceived and defined 

state educational policy, each of our American states has evolved some 
form or type of state administrative organization and control. The form, 
scope, and powers of such a state organization vary greatly in the dif¬ 
ferent states, there being as yet no standard type.. 

The real problem is how to secure greater administrative efficiency 
without interfering with local initiative and impairing local administra¬ 
tive efficiency.”* 

*Cubberley—Public School Administration. 


THE STATE AND EDUCATION 


Problem: 

Should the state educate its members? 

Outline of Problem: 

State interest in education—Education and the individual—Educa* 

tion and society—Education and democracy—State leadership—State 

control. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Is a Normal Training course an aim of the State of Nebraska 
to develop in you general or specific social ability ? 

2. Do the curricula of your high school aim at general or specific 
social efficiency? 

3. Does the trade school aim to develop general or specific social 
ability? 










128 (125) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


4. Is the aim of the elementary school to develop general or spe¬ 
cific social ability? 

5. What departments in your high school, if any, aim at specific, 
rather than general social ability ? 

6. Is the aim of history general or specific social ability? How 
about civics? Arithmetic? Shorthand? 

7. Should there be national supervision of education in America ? 

8. Is it a matter of importance to the people of New York or Cali¬ 
fornia that the people of Nebraska be educated? Why? 

9. Should modern nations be interested in education? Why? 

Readings: 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, Chap. I. 
SYSTEMS OF ADMINISTERING RURAL SCHOOLS 


Problem: 

What form of administration will make rural schools the most 
efficient ? 

Outline of Problem: 

Beginnings—School as a Community Enterprise—Multiplicity of 
Communities—Fluctuation of Population. 

District as a Unit—Early Function of District—Local Autonomy— 
Powers and Duties of Boards—Narrow Outlook—Finance—Number 
of School Officers—Advantages and Disadvantages—County Super¬ 
intendent and the District System—Types in Nebraska. 

Town and Township System—Where found—Size of Unit—Finance— 
County Superintendent and the Town or Township System—Advan¬ 
tages and Disadvantages. 

County Unit—Board of Education—Analogue in City Administration 
—Growth of Education—Teacher Employment—Equalizing Oppor¬ 
tunity—Equalizing Taxation—Supervision—County Superintendent 
and County Unit—District as Analogue of the Ward School. 

State Unit—Function of State Department of Education—Nebraska’s 
System. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Would local district control be the best means of administering 
the problem of roads and bridges ? 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(126) 129 


2. Why not have a separate school board for each ward in a city? 

3. How many rural teachers in your county? How many members 
of school boards ? How many rural school districts in your 
county? How many townships? 

4. What is the average number of children per rural school in your 
county ? If it were so arranged that each teacher might have 
thirty children, how many teachers would your county really 
need ? 

"■v 

5. Does local control permit personal interest to interfere with the 
best interests of the school ? 

6. If your study indicates that the district is not the best unit of 
organization, account for its persistence. 

7. Under the county unit system, the county superintendent would 
have the recommendation of teachers as a city superintendent 
now does in a city system. Do you favor this or not, and why ? 
What states have the county system? 

8. What system of administration prevails in Nebraska? How is 
the county superintendent secured, and what are his chief duties ? 
How is the state superintendent secured and what are his chief 
duties ? 

9. What rank does the Russell Sage Foundation give the Nebraska 
schools? (See Betts and Hall, page 35.) 

10. Would a larger unit than the district be really undemocratic 
in Nebraska ? 

11. Outline an ideal system of administration for the rural schools 

Readings: 

Cubberley—Rural Life and Education, pages 177-192. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, Chap. II. 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, 353-68. 


FINANCIAL SUPPORT 

Problem : 

How shall the rural school be financed ? 

Outline of Problem: 

Permanent School Fund—Apportionment of State Funds—State Aid 
or Subsidy—State Tax—County Aid and County Tax—Local Tax— 
Function of Taxation—Administration of Funds and Taxes—Units 
of Taxation. 


130 (127) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Projects and Related Problems: 

1. What is the school tax levy in your district ? 

2. From a tax receipt from your county treasurer, find conspicuous 
examples of inequality of school taxes. 

3. How much is required to finance the schools of your county for 
this year? What tax levy would that require on the assessed 
valuation of the county ? 

4. What amount of money did your district receive from appor¬ 
tionment of state funds last year? 

5. Does the State of Nebraska subsidize any phase of education in 
your school? If so, to what extent? 

6. Do counties aid or subsidize schools in Nebraska ? If so, how 
is the money secured? 

7. Should the nation subsidize certain types of education? (Does 
the state or nation subsidize for roads ?) 

8. Outline a scheme for financing the rural schools. 


Readings: 

Cubberley—Rural Life and Education, pages 193-204. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, Chap. IV. 
Betts and Hall—Better Rural Schools, Chap. XXII. 

SUPERVISION 

Problem: 

How shall rural schools be supervised ? 


Outline of Problem: 

Meaning of Supervision—Economy—Relation to Unit of Administra¬ 
tion—Need in Rural Schools—Supervision of Teachers—Supervision 
and Course of Study—Qualifications of Supervisor—County Super¬ 
intendent and Supervision—The Supervisor as a Leader of Leaders 
—Analogue in City—Special Supervisors for Rural Schools. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Why should the city school go to the expense of hiring a super¬ 
intendent? Why not let each room be a separate school? 

2. Why have a manager for a department store? Why not let 
each counter or department buy and sell independently? 

3. Railroads hire section bosses, but schools neglect sufficient super¬ 
visors. Why ? 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(128) 131 


4. If a supervisor spent the equivalent of one full day each month 
in each rural school in your county, how many rural supervisors 
would be necessary? Is this enough time for a good supervisor 
and a good teacher? 

5. Phillips says, “We have not as yet evolved any adequate means 
of supervision for the rural schools”. Cubberley says, “Perhaps 
no phase of the rural school problem is more urgently in need 
of radical reconstruction than is that phase that has to do with 
the supervision of the instruction in our rural and village 
schools”. Do you believe these statements? 

6. How can Standard Tests aid the teacher in self-supervision ? 
(Review Observation Lessons 7 and 8—Very Important.) 

, 7. Should the county superintendent be a supervisor or director of 

supervisors ? 

8. What is the function of institutes in county supervision ? 

9. Outline a plan for supervising the rural and village schools of 
your county. 

Readings: 

Pittman—Successful Teaching in Rural Schools, Chap. XXIV. 

Cubberley—Rural Life and Education, Chap. XIII. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, Chap. V. 

Betts and Hall—Better Rural Schools, Chap. XXI. 

CONSOLIDATION AND NEBRASKA’S REDISTRICTING LAW 

Problem: 

Will consolidation improve rural education in Nebraska? 

Outline of Problem: 

Multiplicity of Districts—Need of Larger Schools—Excessive De¬ 
mand of Modern Social Life—New Demands in Education—Extended 

Courses of Study—School and Community—Township Plan—County 

Plan—Nebraska Plan as County Survey Plan—Advantages and Dis¬ 
advantages—Transportation. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Are the roads in your community an aid or a hindrance to con¬ 
solidation ? 

2. Who constitutes the redistricting committee in your county? 
What are the duties of this committee? 

3. Secure a map from your county superintendent, showing county 
redistricted. How many proposed districts does your county 


132 (129) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


contain? How are open country consolidations effected in Ne¬ 
braska? How is consolidation effected in a proposed district 
containing a high school or city school district? When a con¬ 
solidation is effected, what is done with fragments of old dis¬ 
tricts left outside the boundaries of the new district? 

4. Will consolidation make for better rural schools? Would con¬ 
solidation be feasible in your community? 

5. What in general, is the best type of transportation for pupils? 
Would this be best for your community? Should children be 
taken from the home or from the nearest point on public road ? 
Should teachers serve as drivers? 

6. Is the present consolidation law a better plan for consolidation 
than the plan for establishing rural high schools? (See sections 
6373-76, Article VIII, School Laws.) Why? Which would 
leave “stranded” districts with a large amount of consolidation? 

7. Should the state encourage consolidation by increasing aid to 
consolidated schools ? 

Readings: 

Nebraska School Laws, Art. XXIV; Art. VIII, Sec. 6373-76. 

Cubberley—Rural Life and Education, Chap. X. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, Chap. III. 

Betts and Hall—Better Rural Schools, appropriate topics in Part IV. 

Iowa State Teachers’ College, Extension Division—Better Rural 
Schools (one of the best). 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, 368-73. 

NEBRASKA SCHOOL LAWS PARTICULARLY AFFECTING RURAL 

TEACHERS 

Problem: 

What statutes most concern the rural teacher? 

Outline of Problem: 

I. General. 

A. District a body corporate (6582) 

B. Right of Eminent Domain (6486) 

C. Annual Meeting (6268) 

1. Qualifications of Voters (6271) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(130) 133 


2. Length of School Term (6286) 

3. Levy for general school purposes (6278-80) 

II. School Board and Its Officers. 

A. Election (6293) 

B. Quorum (6322) 

C. Hiring of Teacher—how governed (6314) 

D. Length of School Month (6440) 

E. General Management of School (6324) 

F. Suspension of Pupils (6326) 

G. Water Closets (6335) 

H. Books, Ownership and Use (6498; 6506) 

I. School Supplies (6507) 

J. Provide for Instruction in effects of alcoholic drinks (6446-7) 

K. Display of United States Flag (6530-5) 

III. Teachers—Duties and Qualifications. 

A. Citizenship (6456) 

B. Certificates 

1. County (6424-5) 

2. Examination (6431-2) 

3. Registration (6430) 

4. Revocation (6433) 

C. Reports (6439) 

D. Attendance at Institutes (6448; 6452-3) 

E. Religious garb in Schoolroom (6454-5) 

F. Drawing of Salary during Epidemics (6542; Regulations 
State Board of Health) 

G. Teaching Foreign Languages (Art. I, Sec. 27, Const. Nebr.) 

IP. Display of U. S. Flag and Patriotic Exercises (Sec. II, K, 
above) 

I. Health Examination of Pupils (6536-41) 

J. Instruction in Dangers of Fire (Art. XIII) 


134 (131) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


THE RURAL SCHOOL PLANT 

The rural school plant influences the spirit of the school very much 
as the physical condition of an individual influences his spirit of attack 
on the problems of life. 

The plant is the physical means thru which we bring the mind of 
the child into contact with the subject matter. It is, so to speak, the 
intermediary between the mind of the learner and the subject matter to 
be learned, and the one criterion by which a school plant is to be 
judged is, does it further the education of the individual child? Insofar 
as it does, the plant is good; insofar as it fails, it is bad. Not only 
must a school plant function in the acquisition of knowledge, the de¬ 
velopment of skill, and the attainment of right ideals, but it must func¬ 
tion more directly in the bodily well being of the pupil. It is here, 
perhaps more than in any other one function of the educational process, 
that the child can be taught the right standards of sanitation and 
hygiene, and yet school plants and school equipment are tolerated, which 
violate every established principle of health. 

The teacher must take the plant as she finds it, since the plant is 
very largely a community enterprise, and was probably established before 
the present standards of architecture, sanitation and education were 
formulated. But the fact that the teacher must take things as she 
finds them can be no excuse for not making the best of that with which 
she has to deal. 

SCHOOL GROUNDS 

Problem: 

What factors are to be considered in determining the type and 

location of a school site? 

Outline of Problem: 

Location—Area—Fencing—Trees and Shrubs—Walks—Location of 

Schoolhouse—Location and Type of Adjunct Buildings—Location of 

Play-ground and Play-ground Apparatus—Sanitation—Surroundings. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Where should the school site be located with reference to the 
district ? 

2. How much ground should be acquired for a one-teacher school? 
How much for a consolidated school? May this ground be ac¬ 
quired in spite of the owner’s objections ? 

3. Should the school yard be fenced? If so, what kind of fence is 
most satisfactory? 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(132) 135 


4. What kinds of shrubs and trees should be planted, and when ? 

5. How may school grounds be kept clean? 

6. Wherein are rural school grounds (which you have observed for 
purposes of this course) inadequate? 

7. List minimum of play-ground apparatus. 

8. Draw a plan for an ideal school ground for a one-teacher school, 
showing school building, adjunct buildings, play-ground, lawn, 
trees, etc. 

Readings: 

Bennett—School Efficiency, Chap. II. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, pages 43-44. 

« 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, 126-34. 

SCHOOL BUILDINGS 

Problem: 

What are the essentials of a building for a one-teacher school? 

Outline of Problem: 

External Features—Height, Width and Length of Classroom— 
Porch—Entry—Cloakroom — Washroom — Bookroom and Library— 
—Heating Plant—Care and Protection of Building. 

Fuelroom—Floor—W alls—Ceiling—Decorations—Doors— Basement. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. What should be the minimum number of rooms in the one- 
teacher rural school ? 

2. What principles govern the length of class room? 

3. How should the walls and ceiling be tinted ? 

4. What provision should be made for fuel ? 

5. What provision should be made for work room and library? 

6. What is the best type of cloakroom? Should there be separate 
cloakrooms? Should pupils come from outdoors directly into 
the cloakroom? 

7. Draw floor plan of a one-teacher rural school. 


136 (133) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Readings: 


Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, pages 44-45; Ap¬ 
pendix A. 

Dresslar—School Hygiene, pages 28-40. 

Bennett—School Efficiency, Chap. III. 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, 113-26. 


LIGHTING THE CLASSROOM 


Problem: 

How can proper lighting prevent eye-strain? 


Outline of Problem: 

Light and Vision—Common Eye Defects—Type of Poor Lighting— 
Period of Lighting Space—Placement of Windows (distance from 
floor; distance from ceiling; distance between windows; distance 
from ends of building; relation to width of room)—Orientation— 
Shades and Shutters—Use of Prism Glass—Tinting and Light— 
Blackboards and Light. 


Projects and Related Problems: 

1. How do we see? 

2. Why should a schoolroom be scientifically lighted? 

3. Review Exercises 1 to 9 inclusive, pages 14-15 Normal Training 
Courses of Study, Bulletin A (Professional Training). 

4. From what cardinal point should the light come into rural 
schools ? 

5. Why is the unilateral system best? Why not have light from 
rig*ht or from the rear instead of from the left? 

6. Why should top of window be as near the ceiling as possible? 
Why should bottom of window be from thirty to forty inches 
from floor? 

7. If you teach in a room lighted from opposite sides, what features 
determine your attempt to correct the lighting? 

8. How do blackboards affect lighting? 

9. What color and kind of window shades do you prefer and why? 
Do you have the proper kind of shades in your schoolroom? 

10. Are the walls of your school room properly tinted? 

11. Draw the elevation of the side from which the schoolroom is to 
be lighted. (See plan drawn for Problem 7 under “School 
Buildings”.) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING (134) 137 


Readings: 

Dresslar—School Hygiene, Chap. IV. 

Bennett—School Efficiency, Chap. IV. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, page 46. 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, 57-63. 

HEATING AND VENTILATION 

The problems of heating and ventilating are so closely allied as to 

preclude separate treatment. 

Problem: 

How shall rural schools be heated and ventilated ? 

Outline of Problem: 

Oxygen and Life—Air Circulation and Temperature—Standard of 

Temperature—Standard of Ventilation—Humidity and Health— 

Gravity and Air Circulation—All-window Ventilation—Window 

Boards—Storm Windows—Flushing—Jacketed Stoves — Warming 

and Drying Wet Feet and Clothing—Drafts—“Fresh Air Fiends”. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Why is the ordinary stove unsatisfactory for both heating and 
ventilating? Will placing a sheet metal jacket around the stove 
make it adequate? Will it help? (How can you get the best 
results from the ordinary stove when the ordinary stove is 
usually too small to be turned into a good room heater?) 

2. Study the essential features of one or more standard rural 
heaters sold for rural schools. What is the purpose of the 
jacket ? The fresh air intake ? The foul air exhaust ? The 
water pan? What advantage in having a large door in the 
jacket ? 

3. What arrangement to heat the room quickly in the morning? 
What arrangement to prevent smoking when firing the heater? 

4. Will a pipeless furnace meet the requirements for heating and 
ventilation ? The pipe furnace will not ventilate a schoolroom 
unless it has a fresh air intake and a foul air exhaust. How 
may these be provided? 

5. Did your drawing for the plan for a one teacher schoolroom ade¬ 
quately provide for heating and ventilating? 

6. Review Exercises 10-16, page 15, Normal Training Courses of 
Study, Bulletin A (Professional Training). 


138 (135) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


7. Make a diagram showing that you fully understand the jacketed 
room heater. 

8. Describe in detail how you would start a fire in a room heater 
and manipulate it for the first forty-five minutes on an es¬ 
pecially cold morning. 

9. What make of room heater do you prefer and why? 

Readings: 

Dressiar—School Hygiene, pages 141-150; 181-188. 

Bennett—'School Efficiency, Chap. V. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, pages 47-51. 

Catalogue of the Smith, Waterbury and other room heaters. (Es¬ 
sential.) 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, 64-73. 

THE SEATING OF PUPILS 

Problem: 

What factors determine proper seating and how does improper seat¬ 
ing hinder efficiency? 

Outline of Problem: 

The Desk—Relation to Vision—Relation to Writing—Relation to 
Posture—Finish and Vision—Standard of Height from Floor—Plus 
and Minus Distances—Adjustable Desks—Single Desks. 

The Seat—Curves—Standard of Height—Back—Bookbox—Width of 
Seat Compared to Width of Desk. 

General—-Desk and Hygiene of Seating—“Jiggling”—Movable Desks 
and Sanitation. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Hold your book so that you can sit erect and yet see the book 

best. What does this teach you as to the relation of the slant of 
the desk top to vision? ; 

2. What is the approximate angle between the plane of your book 
when it lies flat on your desk and the line of vision? What 
should the angle be? 

3. Review Project 5, under “Hygiene of Writing”, Normal Training 
Courses of Study, Bulletin B. 

4. Which has the better suggestion as to the proper kind of school 
desk, Dressiar or Bennett? Review Exercises 1-3, page 16, Nor- 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(136) 139 


mal Training Courses of Study, Bulletin A (Professional Train¬ 
ing). 

5. Is your desk of proper height? Your seat? Has the desk the 
proper tilt for reading? For writing? For sitting properly? 
Is the seat properly curved? Does the back properly fit you? 
Is the desk top properly finished? 

6. Measure five desks in the intermediate grades to see if the desk 
and seat are of proper height from the floor, and have proper 
minus distances. 

7. If ordinary single desks are used, how should they be arranged 
in rows? How far apart? If child’s feet do not touch the floor, 
what should be done? 

8. How may the schoolroom be seated for, community use? Should 
you use recitation seats for classes? 

9. How may old desks be renovated? 

Readings: 

Dresslar—School Hygiene, Chap. V. 

Bennett—School Efficiency, Chap. VI. 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, 83-88. 


Problem: 


WATER SUPPLY 


How can wholesome water be provided for rural school pupils? 


Outline of Problem: 

Open Pail—Common Drinking Cup—Closed Water Jar—Drinking 
Fountain—Individual Drinking Cup—“Carrying Water”—School 
Well—School Cistern—Facilities for Washing—Common Towel—• 
Paper Towel—General Hygiene. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. If the school depends upon a nearby farm for water, what is the 
most satisfactory, inexpensive container for the school use? 
How will you procure an adequate supply for washing hands? 

2. How can the common drinking cup be avoided? 

3. A rural teacher was once observed having the primary pupils 
make “sanitary” paper drinking cups for the entire school. 
What is your opinion of this? 


140 (137) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a drinking foun¬ 
tain in a school having no well? 

5. Should every rural school have a well and windmill? 

6. How many wash basins are needed ? 

7. What would you consider the best water system for consolidated 
rural or village schools ? 

Readings: 

Dresslar—School Hygiene, Chapters VII and VIII. 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, 78-83. 

THE SCHOOL LUNCH 

Problem: 

How shall the lunch problem be handled in the rural school ? 


Outline of Problem: 

“What to Do With the Dinner Pail”—Lunching at Recess—The 

“Grab and Run” Plan—Clean Hands for Lunch—The Hot Lunch— 

Lunch and Schoolroom Sanitation—Lunch and Social Training. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. What is the best type of “dinner pail”? 

2. What will you do with the lunch containers in your school? 
Should they be left in the hall ? 

3. Should pupils be allowed to lunch at recess ? How about lower 
grade pupils ? 

4. Are you justified in taking a part of the playtime to make pupils 
eat their lunches in the schoolhouse at noon? 

5. Make a list of six or seven palatable dishes that might be pre¬ 
pared at the schoolhouse as the “one hot dish for the hot lunch”. 

6. What is the minimum equipment essential to preparing and 
serving a hot lunch? How much of this equipment can the 
pupils bring each day? 

7. Should the school district furnish material for the hot lunch? 
Should the pupils alternate in furnishing it or should the pupils 
donate the money and the teacher buy the material? Should a 
board of pupils keep the accounts ? 

8. Who should prepare the lunch, the teacher or the older pupils? 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(138) 141 


Readings: 

The Hot Lunch Project—Extension Service, University of Nebraska, 
College of Agriculture. 

The Hot Lunch in the Rural Schools—Extension Service of the Col¬ 
lege of Agriculture, University of Wisconsin. 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, 105-111. 

SCHOOL TOILETS 

Problem: 

How to secure adequate sanitary toilets for the rural schools. 

Outline of Problem: 

Toilet and Sanitation—Moral Hygiene and Toilet—Relation to Health 
—Location—Size of Building—Height and Number of Seats—Pro¬ 
tection from Water—Deep Pit Type—Sanitary Types—Septic Dis¬ 
posal—Shrubbery Screens—Disinfecting. 

Readings: 

Dresslar—School Hygiene, Chapter IX. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, page 292. 

Bulletin No. 92, U. S. Bureau of Health. 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, 73-78. 

KEEPING THINGS CLEAN 

Problem: 

What is the best way to clean up the equipment and then to keep it 
clean ? 

Outline of Problem: 

Blackboards—Pencils— Slates — Floors —• Desks — Windows — Cup¬ 
boards—Books—Water Containers—Wash Basins—Toilets—“Muddy 
Days”—Dangers of Dust—Sweeping—Dusting—Disinfecting—Keep¬ 
ing Air Clean—Cleanliness in Physical Health—Cleanliness in Moral 
Health. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Why is dust dangerous? 

2. What is the standard of clean air recommended by the committee 
on standard methods for clean air? 

3. What should be the humidity of the schoolroom? (It would be 
an interesting experiment for a physics class to discover the 


142 (139) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


relative humidity for the separate rooms in the building.) See 
Dresslar, School Hygiene, pages 202-209. To get an idea of the 
dust particles floating in supposedly clean air, darken the class¬ 
room and allow a small shaft of light to enter through a single 
aperture and note the dust particles floating in the air. 

4. Why the stigma, ‘The deadly feather duster”? Is your school- 
house swept and dusted as it should be ? Are the blackboards 

and erasers in your schoolhouse properly cleaned ? 

• 

5. How often should a country schoolhouse be scrubbed ? How 
often should the windows be washed? 

6. How can good “school-house-keeping” supplement “keeping 
things clean”? 

Readings: 

Bennett—Chapter VIII. 

Dresslar—Chapters XXIII, XXIV and XXVI, pages 41-49 inclusive. 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, 88-91. 

SCHOOL EQUIPMENT 

Problem: 

What are the minimum essentials in equipment consistent with good 

work ? 

Outline of Problem: 

Texts—Supplementary Texts and References—Maps—Charts—Globe 

—Blackboard—Duplicator—Sand Table—Play Material—Primary 

Materials—Art Materials—Phonograph—Stereoscope and Views— 

Library—Pictures—Devices to Supplement Subject Matter—Value, 

Use and Care of Equipment—Equipment—Vandalism. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. What do you consider as a minimum for supplementary reading? 
Supplementary material for history? Geography? Teaching of 
Hygiene ? 

2. What are the functions of the sand table in a rural school? 

3. Make a list of materials for primary seat work and estimate the 
cost. What use can be made of clay in the rural school ? What 
are the best kinds of art materials? (See Normal Training 
Course of Study in Drawing and Handwork.) 


4. What kind of a globe is best? What is the minimum of wall 
maps necessary for geography teaching ? What charts and sup- 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(140) 143 


plementary material might be secured from the International 
Harvester Company; Armour and Company? Other commer¬ 
cial firms? Are large, expensive charts usually necessary? 

5. List things that a small museum for nature study and agri- 
culture might contain. 

6. What kind of blackboard is best? What kind of crayon? What 
kind of erasers ? What provision should be made for primary 
pupils to be properly placed at the blackboard? 

7. Which do you prefer, a phonograph or an organ, and why? 

8. Make a list of one-half dozen pictures suitable for rural school 
decoration. 

9. List ways a hectograph can be of help. 

10. How may a traveling library be secured from the Library Com¬ 
mission ? Why not make the school library the community 
library ? Prepare a list of fifty books suitable for rural school 
libraries. (Library lists may be secured from Professor A. V. 
Teed, Wayne State Teachers’ College. See also, the “Rural 
Librarian” bulletin of the Kearney State Teachers’ College.) 

11. How may funds be secured to purchase equipment if board re¬ 
fuses to purchase it? 

Readings: 

Bennett—School Efficiency, Chapter VII. 

Dresslar—School Hygiene, pages 41-49 inclusive. 

SUMMARY 

Suggestions to Teachers 

See Appendix B, page 287, Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary 
Education, for suggestions as to topics for review and summarization of 
principles of rural school hygiene. 

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE RURAL SCHOOL 

“Organization signifies, in general, the arrangement of the parts of 
a complex whole w r ith a view to its smooth and effective working. A 
school is organized when the pupils are properly classified and graded 
and all work of the school is definitely arranged and programmed. The 
from each member of every class for all the time; (2) to remove fric¬ 
tion, prevent confusion, forestall disorder, and save time and energy; 
(3) to make universal education possible by enabling one teacher to in- 


144 (141) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


struct efficiently many pupils in one class; (4) to afford pupils the op¬ 
portunity of forming right habits; (5) to secure the prompt despatch of 
the business of the school. 

A school is well organized and well managed when it is ready to do 
effective work, when the conditions for study and recitation are made 
as favorable as possible for every pupil, when the interest and hearty 
co-operation of the parents have been secured, when there is perfect 
sympathy between teacher and pupils and when the arrangement of the 
work of the school tends to promote in the pupils diligent study, self¬ 
effort, right ideals, and self-control.”* 

PRELIMINARY PREPARATION 

What constitutes adequate preparation for the first day of school? 
Outline of Problem: 

Getting a School—The Contract—Boarding Place—Preliminary Visit 

—Preliminary Organization of Pupils—Survey of Last Year’s 

Records—Preliminary Program. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Should you apply for a school by mail, by phone or by a personal 
visit? Why? Why should you consult the county superin¬ 
tendent before applying? 

2. Secure blank contract from your county superintendent. Prop¬ 
erly fill out this blank. Who must sign this contract? Is it 
legal if a teacher has no certificate ? 

3. Secure blank pages from attendance register; from a classifica¬ 
tion record; from term summary. Learn how to interpret these. 
(It is from these records that you learn what your predecessor 
did.) 

4. What seat work will you give the beginners the first day ? 

5. Would it be a good plan to meet as many pupils as possible be¬ 
fore the first day? 

6. Will you make a list of materials needed before school begins ? 
How will you determine these needs? 

7. How long before school begins should you make the preliminary 
visit and survey? How long will this take? 

8. How long before school begins should the teacher move into the 
community ? 


•Colgrove—The Teacher and the School. 



PROFESSIONAL TRAINING (142) 145 

/ 

9. A preliminary program cannot be made until the teacher has a 
temporary roll of the pupils with the classification of each. How 
may this roli and classification be secured ? 

10. Why should the teacher do all this work before the first day? 
Readings: 

See next problem. 


THE FIRST DAY 

Problem: 

What shall be done on the first day of school ? 

! 

Outline of Problem: 

Arrival—Clean Schoolhouse—Water Supply—Preliminary Roll— 
Preliminary Classification—Opening Exercises—Distribution of 
Texts and Materials—First Recitations—Carrying out Preliminary 
Program—First Recreation Period—Lunch Hour—“Sizing Up” 
Pupils—“Sizing Up” Teacher—Beginning Right- 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. What time will you arrive at your school on the first day? 

2. How will you have determined each pupil’s preliminary classi¬ 
fication ? 

3. Will you have pupils help on first day? 

4. Will you give out all texts at one time, or distribute the texts 

as you call your classes to recitation? What provision will you 
have made for ready distribution of texts ? 

5. Will you have any recitations on the first day? Is it better to 
assign all work for the day at once, or assign each lesson as 
you call classes ? 

6. Shall pupils be permitted to select their own desks? 

7. What seat work will you give the primary pupils for the first 

day? 

8. Will you have any organized play on the first day? Why? 

Readings: 

Pittman—Successful Teaching in Rural Schools, chapters I-III. 

Betts and Hall—Better Rural Schools, pages 165-176. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, pages 75-78. 
Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, pages 45-48. 

Bennett—School Efficiency, pages 194-199. 


146 (143) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


CLASSIFICATION 

Problem: 

What shall determine the placement of the pupils in instruction 
groups ? 

/ 

Outline of Problem: 

Standards—Course of Study—Size of Class—Gradation of Daily 
Work—Combination and Alternation—Number of Classes—Capabili¬ 
ties of Pupils—Standard Tests. 

Methods—Examinations—Texts—Daily Work—Teacher’s Estimate 
—Standard Tests. 

General—Gradation—Skipping Grades—Failing—Laggards—Advan¬ 
tages and Disadvantages of Classes—“Principles of Promotion”— 
Partial Promotion and “Conditions”. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. According to the Nebraska Course of Study, what subjects should 
a pupil in the third grade be taking? Fifth grade? Seventh 
grade? What texts should he be using? 

2. What standards should an average eighth grade pupil obtain if 
given representative selections of questions from Column “L” 
of the Hahn history scale. What standards should a sixth grade 
pupil obtain from exercises selected from Column “0” in the 
Hahn-Lackey geography scale ? How well should a sixth grade 
pupil spell? Can you tell by using the Ayres spelling scale? 
How well should a sixth grade pupil write?- Can you tell by 
using writing scales ? How well should a fourth grade pupil 
read ? A sixth grade pupil ? Can you tell by using the Fordyce 
Scale for Measuring Achievements in Reading? 

3. Can you combine and alternate the work of two years in ad¬ 
vanced geography ? What sections of the text would be given 
each year? 

4. Is it practicable to combine the seventh and eighth grades in 
arithmetic, giving denominate numbers and measurements one 
year, and percentage with its applications the next year? What 
alternations can be made with the fifth and sixth grades com¬ 
bined ? 

5. How may objections of parents to combinations and alternation? 
be overcome? 

6. Prepare a list of combinations and alternations that might be 
made with the Nebraska Course of Study. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(144) 147 


7. How can standard tests function in classification and promotion? 
Be specific. 

8. Outline your method of classification, grading and promoting 
pupils in your school by the use of methods suggested in the 
readings. 

9. Tabulate under each grade the type of work each grade should 
carry. 

Readings: 

Normal Training Courses of Study, Bulletin A (Professional Train¬ 
ing), review pages 28-37. (Most important.) 

Bennett—School Efficiency, pages 119-122, Chap. XIII. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, pages 79-87 and 

Chap. XXI. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, pages 48-54, Chap. VIII. 

Betts and Hall—Better Rural Schools, pages 172-179. 

Course of Study for the Elementary Schools of Nebraska. 

THE DAILY PROGRAM 


Problem: 

How shall the work of the one teacher school be so scheduled as to 

make for the most efficient teaching? 

Outline of Problem: 

Form of Schedule—Length of Periods—Time of Studying—Capabili¬ 
ties of Pupils—Type of Lessons—Fatigue—Pedagogical Needs— 

Motivation—Number of Classes—Size of Classes—Flexibility. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Railroads have elaborate schedules for handling trains, crews, 
etc. Why ? 

2. Is a teacher justified in devoting five minutes to a subject one 
day and twenty-five minutes another day? 

3. What are the “hard” studies, and what time of day would you 
give them in the rural schools? What, if any, lessons should be 
prepared at home ? 

4. Which do you prefer, the Missouri or the Iowa plan of alterna¬ 
tion? Is either applicable to the Nebraska Course of Study? 
Do they give adequate time for recitations? 

5. Would a six section program be a feasible one? How much time 
per class would such a program permit? Is this enough? 



148 (145) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


6. Would a program for an eighth grade school, with one teacher, 
which provides a separate class for each grade in each subject, 
be feasible? ' Secure from your county superintendent some 
copies of actual rural school programs in your county. Are 
these consistent with the principles of making a program? List 
principles that function in the making of a program. 

7. Make a daily program for a one teacher school having eight 
grades. Make this program for two separate years showing 
combinations and alternations you will make. 

Readings: 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, pages 79-87. 

Bennett—School Efficiency, Chapter XVI. 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, pages 48-54. 

Betts and Hall—Better Rural Schools, pages 172-179. 

Course of Study for Elementary Schools of Nebraska. 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, Chapter VIII. 


REPORTS AND RECORDS 

Problem: 

What records are necessary and how are the grades on these rec¬ 
ords to be determined? 

Outline of Problem: 

Daily Attendance Register—Classification Record—Term Summary 
—Preliminary Report to County Superintendent—Monthly Reports— 
Health Examination Reports—Pupil’s Report Card—Grading and 
Type of Marks—Grade Record—Advantages and Disadvantages of 
Types of Marking. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Does anyone in the class know all about geography? Should he 
have a grade of one hundred ? Does anyone in your class know 
nothing about geography? Should he have a zero grade? 

2. Examine report cards of a selected grade in your school. What 
system of marking is used? Are fine distinctions drawn as to 
grades ? Can pupils of this room be classified into five groups 
such as the following: Very superior, superior, average, inferior, 
and very inferior? 

m 

3. Make a graph of the average grades, or the average grades in 
any subject on the report cards. Does the graph indicate the 
class might be grouped into five such groups as indicated above ? 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(146) 149 


4. In grading examination papers, in history for instance, should 
deductions be made for poor spelling, lack of neatness, improper 
punctuation, etc? Should the grade be added to if the spelling 
is good, paper neat, and properly punctuated? 

5. If two papers have equal value, and one is the result of twenty 
minutes’ work, and the other the result of one hour’s painstaking 
effort, which should have the higher grade and why? 

6. How will you determine the grades you will put on pupils’ re¬ 
port cards? Will you grade them numerically? What system 
of marking will you use? Can you justify the distinctions of 
one-half per cent in grades? One per cent, or even five per cent? 

7. Examine the attendance records and class records in your school. 
Why is the daily attendance register so important? 

8. Secure all blanks from county superintendent, of all reports 
which you are required to make to his office as a rural teacher, 
and properly fill them out. Why should the county superin¬ 
tendent want these reports ? 

# 

Readings: 

Instructions and blanks from county superintendent. 

Bennett—School Efficiency, Chapter XIV, and Chapter XV. 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, Chapter XIV. 


DISCIPLINE 


Problem: 

How shall the rural school be motivated to good conduct? 

Outline of Problem: 

General Purpose—Esprit de Corps—-Morale—Leadership—Dangers— 
Scolding—Threatening—Confusion — “It’s-for-your-own-good” Atti¬ 
tude. 

Motives—“Drives to Action”—Self-serving Motives—Group-serving 
Motives—General Tendencies and Interests—“Higher” Abstract Mo¬ 
tives—Principles of Motivation. 

Incentives—Always Artificial—Type—Function—As Means—Group 
Evaluation—Individual Evaluation. 

Types of Control—Teacher Control—Group Control—Self Control— 
Monarchial—Democratic. 

Methods of Control— Preventative—Corrective (disuse)—Construc¬ 
tive (substitution). 


150 (147) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


School Evils—Tattling—Lying—Cheating- — Thieving — Whispering 
and Note Writing—Noisiness—Shooting “Spit-balls”—Quarreling— 
Fighting — Vandalism — Profanity and Obscenity—Smoking and 
Gambling—'“Playing Hookey”—Pranks and Deviltry. 

Punishment—Deterrent—Retribution—As ..Example — Never Con¬ 
structive—Justice and Approval of Punished—Administration— 

Corporal Punishment—Group-elected Penalties—Teacher’s Penalties 
—Self-selected Penalties—“Natural” Punishment—Set Rules—“It- 
hurts-me-worse-than-it-does-you” Attitude—Purpose. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. “Discipline is the art of directing motives.” Criticise. 

2. What is the difference between motives and incentives ? Indi¬ 
cate a good incentive to motivate art work; work in arithmetic; 
work in written composition. 

3. List the most effective incentives to use, in one column, and list 
opposite the motive or motives it might arouse. 

4. “The motive makes the crime.” Cite at least five specific in¬ 
stances in which this applies in school discipline. 

5. Are prizes justifiable ? What might be a better incentive ? 

6. If a boy is licked by the teacher and comes out a “hero” what 
is wrong? 

7. What will you do with a mischievous child caught drawing cari¬ 
catures of yourself? 

8. Outline your methods of getting pupils to outlaw whispering. 

9. The older boys and girls pass love notes. What will you do? 

10. The boys “smoke corn silks” out behind the coal house. What 
will you do? 

11. It is established that a child is plainly impudent and imperti¬ 
nently “sasses” you in front of the school. What will you do? 

12. Obscene pictures persist in appearing in the outbuildings. What 
will you do? 

13. Do you think you can punish a child and make him like it? 

14. Should the teacher ever “back down”? 

Readings: 

Review exercises 1-17, pages 18 and 19; 7-12, page 21 of the Nor¬ 
mal Training Courses of Study, Bulletin A (Professional Training.) 



PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(148) 151 


Pittman—-Successful Teaching in Rural Schools, 68-76. 

Bennett—School Efficiency, pages 250-253; Chapters XXIV-XXVI. 
Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, Chapter VII. 

Betts and Hall—Better Rural Schools, Chapter XII. 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, Chapters XI-XII. 

PLAY AND RECREATION 


Problem: 

How shall we direct play in the rural schools ? 

Outline of Problem: 

The Play Tendency—Play and Infancy—Function of Play—Play and 
Health—Socializing Play—Organized Play—Games—Dramas—Play 
and Calisthenics—Play Grounds and Apparatus—Play Groups—Sup¬ 
ervision. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. List one-half dozen games suited to the rural schools. 

2. How many natural play groups are usually found in the rural 
school? Can they satisfactorily play together? 

3. List three stories suitable for dramatization in each of these 
groups. List three games suitable for each group. 

4. Would you give calisthenics in the rural school? Why, and if so, 
when ? 

v 

5. Should the teacher be on the playground all the recess periods, 
or can she better occupy her time in lesson preparation? 

Readings: 

Woofter—Teaching in Rural Schools, pages 54-57. 

Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education, Chapter XVIII. 
Dresslar—School Hygiene, Chapter II. 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, Chapter VII. 


THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY 

Problem: 

What shall be the relation of the teacher to the community outside 
the schoolroom? 

Outline of Problem: 

Relation of Community—Parents—Home Life of Pupils—Amuse¬ 
ments—Community Enterprises—Community Pride—Rural Life 


152 (149) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Limitations—Rural School Methods—Standards of Conduct—Ser¬ 
vices—School Community Programs—“Country Mindedness”. 

« 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. “More teachers fail outside the school than in it.” Is this true? 

2. Should the teacher stay in the community over Saturday and 
Sunday ? 

3. How will you manage to get acquainted with your patrons and 
the home life of your pupils ? 

4. To what extent will the teacher become a community leader? In 
what specific things ? 

5. What do we mean when we say the rural school teacher should 
be “country minded” ? 

6. How may the teacher’s gentlemen friends interfere with her suc¬ 
cess in the community? Is the “teacher’s beau” at school an 
incentive to mischievousness? Should the teacher dance or play 
cards in the community where she teaches ? 

7. Is it usually best for the beginner to teach her home school ? 

8. List the things a teacher may do to INTEREST THE COM¬ 
MUNITY IN THE SCHOOL. 

Readings: 

Pittman—Successful Teaching in Rural Schools, Chapter X; XVIII. 

Betts and Hall—Better Rural Schools, Chapter X. 

Wilkinson—Rural School Management, Chapter II. 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(150) 153 


PUBLISHERS OF REFERENCES 1 

Beacon—Method for Teaching Reading.Ginn & Company, Chicago 

Beard and Bagley—A First Book in American History. 

..Macmillan Company, Chicago 

Beers—Tests of Various Methods of Drill in Arithmetic. 

.University of Chicago 

^Bennett—School Efficiency.Ginn & Company, Chicago 

'Betts and Hall—Better Rural Schools....Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis 

Bolenius—Teachers’ Manual of Silent and Oral Reading. 

.Houghton Mifflin Co., Chicago 

Bonser—The Elementary School Curriculum. 

.Macmillan Company, Chicago 


Branom—The Teaching of Geography.Ginn & Co., Chicago 

Branom—The Project Method in Education.R. G. Badger, Boston 


Briggs and Coffman—Reading in Public Schools. 

.Row, Peterson & Co., Chicago 

*Charters—Teaching the Common Branches. 

.Houghton Mifflin Co., Chicago 

Cleveland Survey Arithmetic Tests.... 

.Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, III. 

Committee of Seven—Teaching History. 

.Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. 

fCourse of Study, Baltimore County Schools....Warwick & York, Baltimore 

fCubberley—Rural Life and Education_Houghton Mifflin Co., Chicago 

Dearborn—How to Learn Easily.Little, Brown & Company, Boston 

Deming—Language Games for All*Grades....Beckley-Cardy Co., Chicago 

Dodge and Kirchway—The Teaching of Geography. 

...Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago 

fDresslar—School Hygiene .Macmillan Company, Chicago 

JDriggs—Our Living Language: How to Teach It and How to Use It 

...University Pub. Co., Chicago 

Dyer and Brady—A Manual to Accompany the Merrill Readers. 

.Chas. E. Merrill Co., Chicago 

*Earhart—Types of Teaching.Houghton Mifflin Co., Chicago 

^Eighteenth Yearbook, Part II—Public School Pub. Co., Bloomington, Ill. 

Fourteenth Yearbook, Part I ..University of Chicago 

Free and Treadwell—Primary Method of Teaching Reading. 

.Row, Peterson & Co., Chicago 

*Freeland—Modern Elementary School Practice. 

.Macmillan Company, Chicago 

Freeman—The Psychology of the Common Branches. 

.Houghton Mifflin Company, Chicago 

Teaching Children to Study.Houghton Mifflin Company, Chicago 

Gray—Types of Reading Ability.University of Chicago 


1 Hahn’s Projects in Observation and Practise Teaching, Uni. Pub. Co., Lincoln, Nebr. 









































154 (151) 


PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


Gregg—Hygiene as Nature Study....F. M. Gregg, University Place, Nebr. 
Hahn and Lackey—Teaching Geography and Measuring Its Results 

.Wayne State Teachers College, Wayne, Nebr. 

Hall-Quest—Supervised Study .Macmillan Company, Chicago 

JHoltz—Principles and Methods of the Teaching of Geography. 

...Macmillan Company, Chicago 

Hosic and Hooper—Child’s Composition Book. 

...Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago 

Hoyt and Peet—Everyday Arithmetic.Houghton Mifflin Co., Chicago 

^Johnson—The Teaching of History.Macmillan Company, Chicago 

Judd—Reading: Its Nature and Development.University of Chicago 

Kallom—Reading Ability—Journal of Educational Research. 

.Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. 

Kendall and Mirick—How to Teach the Fundamental Subjects. 

.Houghton Mifflin Co., Chicago 

Kitson—How to Use Your Mind. ; . 

.The J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia 

j'.Klapper—Teaching Children to Read.:.D. Appleton & Co., Chicago 

$Klapper—Teaching of Arithmetic.D. Appleton & Co., Chicago 

JKlapper—Teaching of English.D. Appleton & Co., Chicago 

*La Rue—The Science and Art of Teaching ...American Book Co., Chicago 

Mahoney—Standards in English. 

.World Book Company, Yonkers-On-Hudson, N. Y. 

|Monroe—Diagnostic Tests in Arithmetic. 

.Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. 

*Monroe—Measuring the Results pf Teaching. 

.Houghton Mifflin Co., Chicago 

Parker—The Methods of Teaching in Elementary Schools. 

.Ginn & Company, Chicago 

*Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning. 

.Ginn & Company, Chicago 

*Phillips—Fundamentals in Elementary Education. 

..Chas. E. Merrill Company, Chicago 

*Pittman—Successful Teaching in Rural Schools. 

.American Book Co., Chicago 

Rapeer—Teaching Elementary School Subjects. 

..D. Appleton & Co., Chicago 

Redway—The New Basis of Geography.Macmillan Company, Chicago 

Robbins—The Socialized Recitation.Allyn & Bacon, Chicago 

JSearson and Martin—Manual for Teaching Reading. 

.University Pub. Co., Chicago 

Seventeenth Yearbook—Composition Standards by Grades. 

.Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. 

Shaw—School Hygiene.Macmillan Company, Chicago 

JSheridan—Speaking and Writing English.Benj. H. Sanborn, Chicago 

JSheridan and Reed—Essentials of Teaching Reading. 

.University Pub. Co., Chicago 














































PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 


(152) 155 


Sixteenth Yearbook, Part I.:. 

.Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. 

Smith—The Teaching of Geography by Problems. 

—.-.Doubleday, Page & Co., N. Y. 

Spaulding and Bryce—The Aldine Manual for Teachers. 

.Newson and Company, New York 

Stockton—Project Work in Education.Macmillan Company, Chicago 

Story Hour Manual for Teaching Reading. 

.....American Book Company, Chicago 

Strayer and Norsworthy—How to Teach....Macmillan Company, Chicago 

Survey of St. Louis Public Schools. 

.World Book Company, Yonkers-On-Hudson, N. Y. 

^Sutherland—The Teaching of Geography. 

.Scott, Foresman & Company, Chicago 

Taylor—Principles and Methods of Teaching Reading. 

.Macmillan Company, Chicago 

Terman—Hygiene of the School Child.:. 

...Houghton Mifflin Company, Chicago 

Thorndike—Reading as Reasoning—Journal of Educational Psy¬ 
chology.....Warwick & York, Baltimore 

JTinley—First Steps in Reading.University Publishing Co., Chicago 

^Twentieth Yearbook, Part II. 

.Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. 

$Ward—The Ward Manual for Teachers....Silver, Burdette & Co., Chicago 

^Wayland—How to Teach American History. 

..Macmillan Company, Chicago 

Whipple—How to Study Effectively. 

.Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. 

Whitney—Socialized Recitation.A. S. Barnes & Company, Chicago 

fWilkinson—Rural School Management. 

.Silver, Burdette & Co., Chicago 

'Wilson and Wilson—Motivation of School Work. 

...Houghton Mifflin Company, Chicago 

* Wo offer—Teaching in Rural Schools.Houghton Mifflin Co., Chicago 


♦One required for each four or five members of the class. 
tOne or more in library for reference. 

{Required in other courses. 



































ARITHMETIC 

By the Editor in Collaboration with 
I. N. Clark, Director Rural Education 


158 (8) 


ARITHMETIC 





Arithmetic 


INTRODUCTION 

r • 

« 

Aims 

“A subject like arithmetic which has so long held a commanding- 
place in the curriculum has developed a series of values to justify itseif. 
These values can be grouped into two classes and summed up under 
five headings, viz: 

A. The Practical Values. 

B. The Traditional Values, which include 

1. The Disciplinary Values. 

2. The Pleasure Values. 

3. The Cultural Values. 

4. The Preparatory Values.”* 

“By a more careful analysis of the practical values, from the stand¬ 
point of the general use of arithmetic in society rather than the needs 
of the man in some specialized vocation, it is easily seen that the follow¬ 
ing things are practical to the average person in any walk of life: 

1. Efficiency in computation. 

2. A social insight into business and industrial practices that will 
enable one to interpret references to such practices met in general 
reading or in social and business intercourse. 

3. Power to express and to interpret the numerical expressions of 
the quantitative relations that come within our experiences. 

4. The habit of seeing such relations, particularly those that are 
vital to our welfare. 

While to a degree these four abilities are of importance to all, their 
values vary with the different users of the subject.”! 

This course seeks to justify the teaching of arithmetic on a five¬ 
fold basis: “The practical, the disciplinary, the pleasure, the conven¬ 
tional and the preparatory values. But we must be sure not to see 


*Klapper—The Teaching of Arithmetic, pages 1-2. 
fStone—The Teaching of Arithmetic, page 13. 





ARITHMETIC 


(9) 159 


in these justifications of arithmetic five coordinate values. There is a 
relativity of worth among these values that must be seen clearly and 
kept in view as the guiding principle in teaching and selecting the 
subject matter of arithmetic. We are rapidly making for a new arith¬ 
metic. The new psychology which opposes the doctrine of the transfer 
of abilities, the view of education as a socializing function, the demands 
of industry, the more sympathetic comprehension of child life—all these 
are cooperating to humanize the subject and to teach that the practical 
value of arithmetic is the primary value. To it, all other values must 
bend. A course of study in arithmetic, selected and organized with the 
utilitarian aim in view, can be so taught that all other values are attained 
in their fullest measure.”* 


Mental Arithmetic 

There is no special provision made in the normal training curriculum 
for extra time to be devoted to the subject of so-called mental arithmetic. 
Mental arithmetic is not a subject in itself and should be developed only 
in conjunction with the regular course in arithmetic. A part of each 
recitation must be devoted to oral or mental arithmetic. Such arithmetic 
is the means of thinking out the principles and relations involved in the 
solution of the problems encountered in the regular course. It has two 
fundamental purposes in view: first, the drill in rapid and accurate calcu¬ 
lation in the fundamental processes and their application to the various 
phases of arithmetic; second, the analysis of the problems encountered 
in the written arithmetic. Detailed and labored written analysis is a 
wastage of time and should be used only as a basis for training in oral 
analysis of solutions. 

• i 

Eliminations 

Certain eliminations have been made from the traditional topics 
usually included in the arithmetic course. Among them, a separate treat¬ 
ment of the greatest common divisor (which is used only in reducing 
fractions to their lowest terms), and of the least common multiple (which 
is of value only in finding the common denominator of fractions and has 
but little use in actual business proceedings). Complex fractions and 
fractions with large denominators have no practical value and should not 
be included in the common school course. Obsolete tables in denominate 
numbers and tables used in special vocations are omitted. Reduction of 
denominate numbers to lower and higher denominations is not extensively 
used and requires but slight attention. The addition, subtraction, multi¬ 
plication and division of denominate numbers likewise are not extensively 
used in practical life, and need only such attention as will fix the prin¬ 
ciple of applying the fundamental processes to denominate numbers. 
Short methods in interest are to receive but slight treatment as persons 
figuring interest on an extensive scale always have access to, and make 
use of, interest tables. Inverse problems in fractions, percentage, and 


*Klapper, Idib. 13. 



160 (10) 


ARITHMETIC 


its applications, are touched upon only in such a degree as to aid in the 
solution of practical problems. Partial payments, annual interest, true 
discount, and partnership are not extensively used in actual practice 
and consequently are not touched upon. Only the most practical phases 
of mensuration have been treated. Extensive treatment has not been 
given to the metric system, but the pupil should be familiar with the 
relative values of the meter, the liter, the gram, and the kilogram as 
compared with our standard measures, and these are treated only in con¬ 
nection with like systems of our own measures. 

Teaching the Course 

The normal training teacher will find many valuable suggestions in 
the first five chapters of Klapper, “The Teaching of Arithmetic”, espe¬ 
cially in chapter five, and it is expected that she will continuously and 
consistently apply the principles there developed. It is an axiom in 
pedagogy that the beginning teacher teaches as she was taught. This 
means that the normal trainers will teach arithmetic to the pupils in 
their schools as it was taught to them. 

Carrying Out the Projects 

Experience has proved that Normal Training students do not so 
much need “more, more, more text book arithmetic” as they need actual 
contact with the actual life situations out of which the authors of arith¬ 
metic text books make their problems. Text books are to be used for 
reference guidance. (This does not mean that this is a “methods” course 
only—far from it. It is arithmetic where it functions.) 

The larger portion of the problems is to be “made up” by the 
students themselves out of actual situations, and then solved. Mere 
text book review will not be approved. The materials needed are: 

Foot and yard rules, square and cubic unit measures. 

Pint, quart, and gallon (liquid) measures. 

Peck and bushel measures. 

Weight measures. 

Blank checks, drafts, notes, deposit slips. Samples of bills of lading, 

stock certificates, bonds, life insurance policy, fire insurance policy, 

tax receipt. 

Trips will need to be made to local business establishments for 
original problems. 


Note Book 

Note books are to be kept. In them should be listed teaching de¬ 
vices, outlines of technique, problems “made up” by individuals and 
groups of the class. Do not include solutions to practice problems. It 
is a waste of time and effort. These note books will prove an invalua¬ 
ble aid to the students’ own future teaching. The note books will be 
considered as part of the evidence of the value of the course. 


ARITHMETIC 


(ID 


161 


Use of Standard Tests 

The Standard Tests prescribed in this course have the following 
purposes: 

1. To disclose abilities of members of class in subject matter. 

2. As a means of diagnosing weaknesses of previous learning. 

3. As a basis for remedial instruction to correct faults of previous 
learning and to develop specific abilities. 

4. To indicate individual differences in ability or attainment. 

5. As a point of departure in conducting the class instruction. 

These tests are to be given in the manner prescribed and at the time 
prescribed. They are to be given before the class enters upon the study 
of the subject tested or they are valueless for the purposes here used. 

Report the results of these tests to this department. We will com¬ 
pile and consolidate the results and report our results to Normal Train¬ 
ing High Schools as a tentative norm for normal training classes. 

Suggested Lesson Distribution 

Basic Processes—Four weeks. 

Problems and Problem Solving—One week. 

Statistics and Graphs—One week. 

Denominate Numbers and Mensuration—Three weeks. 

Percentage and Its Applications—Three weeks. 


BASIC PROCESSES 


Notation and Numeration 


Problem: 

How do we identify quantities? 


Outline of Problem: 

Roman Notation (place value)—Hindu-Arabic Notation—Zero—Place 
Value—Decimal Scale (compare" with other scales)—Number (con¬ 
crete, abstract)—Reading and Writing Numbers—Figures—Serial 
Relation—Number Idea. 


Related Problems: 


1. What is the present use of the Roman system of notation? 

2. Why have a zero ? 

3. Would there be an advantage in having a duo-decimal scale 
rather than a decimal scale of notation ? 

4. Estimate lengths, distances and weights. 



162 (12) 


ARITHMETIC 


Readings: 

Klapper—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter VI. 

Stone—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter III. 

Lennes—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter VI. 

Measuring Achievement in Fundamental Operations 
and Diagnosis of Results 

Problem: 

How to determine the standard of achievement in the fundamental 
operations in arithmetic? 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

Give to the normal training class Part II, Monroe’s Diagnostic Tests 
in Arithmetic, according to the “Instructions to Examiners”. Ex¬ 
change papers. Grade these papers as a Round Table exercise in 
class and record the scores on the score sheet. FOLLOW IMPLI¬ 
CITLY the “Instructions to Examiners”, and the “Directions for 
Recording Scores on the Class Record Sheet”. The tests are to be 
given to the normal training class and scored by the normal train¬ 
ing class during the regular recitation period. Determine the stand¬ 
ards of the class in both rate (R) and accuracy (A). How do the 
standards of the class compare with Monroe’s Tentative Standards ? 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. What are the greatest difficulties in this test? Let each Nor¬ 
mal Training student diagnose his own case according to 
Courtis’ types of examples on pages 111-113, Monroe’s Measur¬ 
ing the Results of Teaching, and determine remedial instruction 
necessary. 

2. Determine “Type” of class (Monroe 119-131). What remedial 
instruction is needed by class? 

3. What types of errors are found in these papers? (As listed 
in Table XVII, Monroe 143.) 

4. Give this same test (Monroe’s Diagnostic, Part II, Tests 6-11) 
to the seventh grade of your school. Make same diagnosis and 
analysis of these tests as in projects (1), (2), and (3) above. 

I. Addition: Terms Used—Signs—Column Addition (cumulative cal¬ 
culation)—Carrying—Accuracy—Speed—Forty-five Primary Addi¬ 
tion Facts—Checking Results. 

Related Problems: 

1. “Addition is the combining of unequal like numbers.” Is 
this a good definition? 



ARITHMETIC 


(13) 163 


2. Do business men use plus sign or column addition? Which 
should be emphasized in school ? 

3. How might the forty-five primary addition facts be carried 
to higher orders? 

4. How add double column of figures? 

• 

II. Subtraction: Terms—Signs—Principles of Borrowing—Relation to 
Addition—Eighty-one Inverse Addition Facts—Subtraction and Ad¬ 
dition Method—Checking (proving results). 

Related Problems: 

1. “Subtraction is separating a number into unequal parts.” 
Is this a good definition? 

2. When do business men use the Austrian method? 

3. Is subtraction the inverse of addition? 

4. Of the “take away” method or the “addition” method, which 
is the easier to explain? Which results in greater accu¬ 
racy? Which is more rapid? 

III. Multiplication: Terms—Signs—Relation to Addition—Thirty-six 

Multiplication Facts—Tables—Long and Short Processes—Multipli¬ 
cation by Counting—Proving Results. 

Related Problems: 

1. “Multiplication is the combining of equal like numbers.” Is 
this a good definition? 

2. What are the most difficult of the thirty-six fundamental 
multiplication facts ? 

3. What is the difference between multiplication and addition? 

IV. Division: Terms—Signs—Short and Long Division—Divisibility of 
Numbers—Relation to Multiplication and to Subtraction—Relation 
to Fractions—Forms of Division [by partition, by comparison or 
measurement (quotition) ]. 

Related Problems: 

1. “Partition is the separating of a number into equal parts.” 
“Quotition is measuring one number by another.” Are these 
good definitions? 

2. Do you consider the Austrian method of division the most 
practical ? 


164 


(14) 


ARITHMETIC 


3. Illustrate the difference between partition and quotition. 

4. Show how division is a test of the mastery of the funda¬ 
mentals. 

5. Should division tables be used? 

t 

V. Summary—Related Problems, Topics and Projects: 

1. Signs used in the fundamental operations. When are they used 
in practical work ? 

2. Definitions of fundamental processes. 

3. Definitions of terms used in the fundamental operations. 

4. Examine accounts in a local store if possible. 

5. Examine bank accounts. 

6. Examine some inventories. 

7. Make out and receipt a bill. 

8. Can you appreciate the value of accuracy from the above pro¬ 
cedure ? 

Readings: 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, 117-131; 138-143. 
Lennes—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter VII. 

Klapper—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapters VII-VIII. 

Brown & Coffman—How to Teach Arithmetic, Chapter XI. 

Stone—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapters IV, V, VI, VII. 

Determining Fraction Difficulties 

Problem: 

What common errors are confronted and what are the most common 
difficulties in the study of fractions? 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

Give to the Normal Training class Monroe’s Diagnostic Tests in^ 
Arithmetic, Part III, Tests 12-16, as per directions given above for 
giving Part II. 

Give this same test to the sixth grade. Score and determine stand¬ 
ards as above. 

Related Problems: 

1. What are the most difficult examples in this test? Let each 
Normal Training student diagnose his own case according to 
Count’s and Kallom’s findings. (Monroe 144-5.) 


ARITHMETIC 


(15) 165 


2. Make a similar diagnosis of the tests given to the sixth grade. 

3. What types of examples are needed for drill in the Normal 
Training class ? In the sixth grade ? 

Special Reference: 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, 144-6; 148. 

Fractions—Meaning of the Term 

Problem: 

How are parts of quantities identified? 

Outline of Problem: 

Content of the Concept Fraction—Terms—Notation of Fractions—- 
Reduction of Fractions—Relation to Integers—Proper and Improper 
Fractions—Mixed Numbers. 

Related Problems: 

1. Illustrate concretely the meaning of the numerator, the denom¬ 
inator. 

2. Illustrate concretely a fraction as one or more of the equal parts 
of a unit. 

3. Illustrate concretely a fraction as one or more of the equal parts 
of a number of units. 

4. Illustrate a fraction as an indicated division. 

5. Illustrate a fraction as a ratio. 

6. Illustrate concretely the reduction of a whole number to a frac¬ 
tion; a mixed number to a fraction; a fraction to a whole or 
mixed number; a fraction to lower terms. 

• "• N 

7. Illustrate concretely reduction of fractions to common denomi¬ 
nator. 

Fundamental Operations With Fractions 

Problem: 

How are parts of quantities combined; how is a part of a quantity 
measured or separated into still smaller parts? 

I. Addition and Subtraction: 

Related Problems: 

1. Illustrate function of numerators in addition; of denominators. 

2. Illustrate concretely the addition of fractions with unlike de¬ 
nominators. 


166 


( 16 ) 


ARITHMETIC 


3. Illustrate concretely the subtraction of fractions with unlike de¬ 
nominators. 

4. What is the function of numerators in subtraction? 

II. Multiplication: 

Related Problems: 

1. Illustrate concretely the multiplication of a fraction by a whale 
number. 

2. Illustrate concretely the multiplication of a fraction by a frac¬ 
tion. 

* 

3. What is the principle of cancellation in multiplication of frac¬ 
tions ? 

III. Division: 

Related Problems: 

1. “Invert the divisor and multiply.” Why? 

2. Explain another way of dividing 1 fractions. 

Readings: 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, 144-6; 148. 

Klapper—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter X. 

Stone—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter IX. 

Brown & Coffman—How to Teach Arithmetic, Chapter XIII. 

Lennes—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter VIII. 

Decimal Fractions 

Problem: 

To identify parts of quantities commensurate with a decimal scale; 
how to combine, separate and measure quantities commensurate with 
a decimal scale. 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

Give Monroe’s Diagnostic Tests in Arithmetic, Part IV, Tests 17-20, 
as per instructions given above for giving Part II. What difficulties, 
if any, are. encountered by class in properly placing the decimal 
point? Clear up these difficulties. 

Outline of Problem: 

Notation and Numeration—Relation to Common Fractions—Analogy 
Between Whole Numbers and Decimals—Decimal Points—Use of 
Zero—Fundamental Operations. 


ARITHMETIC 


(17) 167 


Related Problems: 

1. Illustrate placing of decimal point in addition, in subtraction. 

2. Illustrate multiplication of decimals by reducing to common frac¬ 
tions; by analogy with whole numbers. 

3. Illustrate division of decimals by reducing to common fractions 
and “inverting the divisor”; by analogy with whole numbers; by 
changing the division to fractional form and eliminating the 
decimal point from the divisor. 

4. How does the Austrian method of division aid in placing the 
decimal point? 

5. How may common fractions be changed to decimal fractions? 

6. Give decimal equivalent of common business fractions. 

Readings: 

Klapper—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter XI. 

Brown & Coffman—How to Teach Arithmetic, Chapter XIV. 

Stone—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Pages 117-122. 

Lennes—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter IX. 


Checks and Proofs 

Problem: 

How shall the accuracy of a process be tested ? 

Outline of Problem: 

Need of Checks—Methods of Checking—Approximate Proofs—Checks 
for Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division. 


Related Problems: 

1. Illustrate a typical method of proof in each of the fundamental 
operations. 


Short Cuts 


Problem: 

How can processes be shortened ? 


Outline of Problem: 

Advantages in Time—Interest Aroused—Deeper Insight into Pro¬ 
cesses—Skill—Typical Short Cuts. 


168 (18) 


ARITHMETIC 





Related Problems: 

1. Illustrate a typical short cut in each of the four fundamental 
operations. 

2. Illustrate a typical short cut in fractions. 

3. Illustrate a typical short cut by the use of the ratio idea. 

4. Bring in above illustrations from your practical experience. 

Readings: 

Klapper—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter IX. 

Brown & Coffman—How to Teach Arithmetic, Chapters IV and 

XXIII. 

PROBLEMS AND PROBLEM SOLVING 

Problem: 

What is a “problem” in arithmetic? 

Outline of Problem: 

Characteristics—Steps in Solution—Methods of Solution (graphic, 

analytical, by rule)—Purpose of Rules and Formulae—Sources of 

Problems—Problems and Examples—Types of Problems—Inventing 

Problems. 

Measuring the Ability to Solve Problems: 

To Normal Training Instructors: 

Give Monroe’s Standardized Reasoning Test in Arithmetic for 
Grade Eight (Test III, Form I) to the normal training class ac¬ 
cording to “Directions for Giving the Test”. Exchange papers. 
Grade the papers as a Round Table exercise. Record the scores 
on the score sheet. FOLLOW IMPLICITLY the directions for 
giving the test and the directions for scoring. Determine the 
median for (1) Rate of reasoning, (2) Correct reasoning, (3) 
Correct answers. How do these standards compare with the 
Monroe Tentative Standards? What “types” (Monroe’s Meas¬ 
uring the Results of Teaching, pages 157-169) are disclosed by 
the test? 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Study your own test paper. Under what “type” or “types” do 
you come, (1) Slow in reasoning, (2) Low score in correct reas¬ 
oning, (3) Low score in getting correct answer? 


ARITHMETIC 


(19) 169 


2. Does the class as a whole have a wide range of distribution 
(widely differing scores) ? 

3. What sort of work is needed by classes that fall under each of 
the three types designated in Problem 1 ? 

4. Do the test papers in the normal training class show lack of 
knowledge of technical words in arithmetic? 

5. What are the essential “steps” in the solving of a problem ? 
Make a problem and indicate each of the steps in its solution. 

6. Observe the giving of Monroe’s Standardized Reasoning Test in 
Arithmetic for grades six and seven (Test II, Form 1) to the sixth 
or seventh grade in your school. Grade the test papers and 
record the scores. Classify this group of students as to “type” 
(Monroe, pages 157-169) during this exercise. Make as complete 
an analytical diagnosis as is possible. 

7. Are there any of the problems in the text of the course that 
can be solved by the ratio method? If so, select one and explain 
its solution. 

mm 

8. Invent three problems and make parallel solutions, one by unitary 
analysis and one by algebraic equation. Can any of these prob¬ 
lems be solved by the proportion method? 

9. State the rules for the solution of any five different problems in¬ 
vented by some member of the class. 

10. Make a problem to be solved by 

a. graphic method 

b. ratio method 

c. unitary analysis 

d. algebraic equation 

e. proportion 

f. rule or formula 

11. Make a plan for the solution of a problem, clearly representing 
each of the four steps in the solution of it. 

12. Make problems representing each of the seven types listed by 
Klapper. 

Readings: 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, Chapter VI. 

Klapper—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter XIII. 

Stone—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter XIV. 

Lennes—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter XII. 



170 (20) 


ARITHMETIC 


STATISTICS AND GRAPHS 

Problem: 

How to make a quantitative analysis of phenomena (natural, social, 

etc.), and how to represent this analysis by diagram. 

Outline of Problem: 

Collecting Statistics—Average—Median—Mode—Range of Distribu¬ 
tion—Extremes—Quartiles—“Middle 50 %” —Types of Graphs—Sta¬ 
tistical Methods in Standard Tests. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. What was your average grade last month? 

2. What was the average daily attendance in your school last 
month? In the high school? In the grades? 

3. To what median did the normal training class attain in the Mon¬ 
roe Diagnostic Test? In the Monroe Reasoning Test? What 
was the mode in each of these tests ? What was the first quar- 
tile ? The third quartile ? What was the average deviation from 
the median? What was the range of distribution? 

4. From the data obtained in Project 6 under Problems and Prob¬ 
lem Solving, determine for the class to which the test was given, 
the median, the average grade, the range of distribution, the first 
quartile, the third quartile, the average deviation from the me¬ 
dian. 

5. Graph the results obtained in Problems 3 and 4 above. 

6. Graph the results obtained under Problem 3, in Measuring 
Achievements in Fundamental Operations. 

7. Represent by graph enrollment in each of the grades of your 
school, in each of the grades in the high school; the average daily 
attendance in each of the grades, in each of the grades in the 
high school. 

8. Represent by graph the enrollment in each of the high school 
departments. 

9. Represent by graph the average grade you received each semes¬ 
ter since entering high school. 

10. Graph the per capita cost of education in your school on the 
basis of the school census, the enrollment, the average daily 
attendance. 

11. From the results of the physical examination of pupils required 


ARITHMETIC 


(21) 171 


by the State Board of Health graph the results showing eye de¬ 
fects, bad teeth, bad tonsils, poor hearing. 

12. Graph the cost of running your school for the last ten years. 

13. Make a graph from statistics taken from your geography, from 
the text book in history. 

Readings: 

Klapper—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter XVI. 

Brown and Coffman—How to Teach Arithmetic, Chapter XXII. 
Lennes—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter XXIII. 


DENOMINATE NUMBERS AND MENSURATION 

I 

Units of Measure 

Problem: 

What standard units of measure are needed as “media of exchange 
and evaluation in social life” ? 

Outline cf Problem: 

Concept of Measure and Value—Terminology—Relation of Other 
Tables to Federal Money Tables—Common Tables of Measure—Pro¬ 
cesses—Reduction—Addition—Subtraction—Multiplication— Division 
—Application to Social Life. 

Related Problems: 

1. Illustrate the reduction of denominate numbers to units of smal¬ 
ler value. 

2. Illustrate each of the four fundamental operations with denomi¬ 
nate numbers. 

Application of Denominate Numbers 

Problem: 

How are standard units of measure used in social life ? 

Projects and Related Problems: 

I. Linear Measure: 

1. What will be the cost of the fencing required to fence the 
school yard? Select the fencing at a local dealer’s. 

. t 

2. How many meters around the school yard? 



172 (22) 


ARITHMETIC 


II. Square Measure: 

1. What is the actual lighting’ space in your school room? 
What is the ratio of lighting space to floor space? Is it 
sufficient ? 

2. What is the area of the school yard ? 

3. Describe the school property as located on a plat of the 
village or city. 

4. In what section, township, and range do you live? 

5. Examine a copy of a land deed. Locate this land on a 
map of the township. 

6. If you should buy your choice of any eighty acre piece of 
land in your community give the description of the land as 
it would appear in the deed. 

III. Cubic Measure: 

1. How many cubic feet of air in your school room? 

2. How many cubic feet per pupil ? Is this enough ? 

3. How many loads of earth were excavated to make the base¬ 
ment of your home? 

IV. Mensuration: 

1. Illustrate concretely how to find the area of a 

a. rectangle 

b. parallelogram 

c. trapezoid 

d. polygon 

e. triangle 

f. circle 

% * 

2. Explain the process of finding the volume of a 

a. prism 

b. cylinder 

V. Liquid Measure: 

1. How many barrels will your cistern hold? What are its 
cubical contents ? 

2. By measurement determine how many gallons of gasoline 
a steel gasoline barrel will hold. 


ARITHMETIC 


(23) 173 


3. Measure a steel tank at a local dealer’s and determine how 
many gallons it will hold. How many liters. 

4. How many quarts of tomatoes in a case of small cans ? 

VI. Dry Measure: 

1. How many bushels of shelled corn will a wagon box hold? 

2. Measure a grain bin in a nearby gtanary or mill. How 
many bushels of wheat will it hold? 

3. Should grain be bought and sold at a designated number 
of pounds per bushel, or by actual cubic measure per bushel? 

4. How many bushels of potatoes will your bin hold? 

5. What is the capacity of the flour bin in your kitchen? 

VII. Avoirdupois Weight: 

1. What would be the weight of the wheat in the bin meas¬ 
ured for Project 2 under Dry Measure? What weight of 
oats would it hold? What weight of shelled corn? What 
would be the weight of the wheat in kilograms ? 

2. Measure some hay mow. How many tons of baled hay may 
be stacked in it? 

VIII. Longitude and Time: 

1. In what time belt do you live? 

2 If you went from here to New York without changing your 
watch would it be slow or fast, and how much ? 

3. If you traveled from here to San Francisco without chang¬ 
ing your watch would it be slow or fast, and how much? 
If you traveled from here to Yokohama; from here to Lon¬ 
don? 

IX. Board Maesure: 

1. From prices obtained at a local dealer how much will it 
cost to floor your room with the type of lumber you select? 

2. Measure a pile of lumber in the lumber yard and determine 
how many board feet it contains. 

3. How many board feet of lumber will be required for the 
siding of some garage in town that you have measured, 
using shiplap for siding? 


174 (24) 


ARITHMETIC 


X. Papering and Carpeting: 

1. Select at a local dealer’s the kind of paper you want for 
your room. How much will the paper for your room cost? 
How much will the paper for the living room in your home 
cost? 

2. Select carpet at a local dealer’s. How much will it cost 
to carpet the living room in your home with this carpet? 
How much will it cost to carpet your room? 

Readings: 

Klapper—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter XIV. 

Brown & Coffman—How to Teach Arithmetic, Chapters XII and XXI. 
Stone—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter XII. 

Lennes—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapters X; XXIV-XXV. 

Summary and Review of Denominate Numbers and Mensuration 

The summary of denominate numbers can be made by reviewing the 
tables, and by applying the principles of denominate numbers in “prob¬ 
lems without number”. 

Review of mensuration can be made by stating the formulae for the 
solution of problems in mensuration. 


Problem: 


PERCENTAGE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 
The Percentage Idea 


What is percentage and how does it function in the business world ? 


Outline of Problem: 

\ 

Content of Concept—Notation and Numeration—Relation to Frac¬ 
tions and to Decimals—Equivalents to Common Business Fractions— 
Fundamental Types of Problems—Extension of these problems to 
business procedure. 


Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Illustrate: “Per cent” means “out of a hundred”. 

2. Why is “per cent of what” essential to the understanding of 
percentage ? 

3. Construct problems illustrating each of the fundamental prob¬ 
lems of percentage. Illustrate each of the three phases of Case 

III. 



ARITHMETIC 


(25) 175 


4. What percentage of the senior class is taking the normal training 
course ? 

l 

5. Compare the cost of maintaining the normal training department 
with the cost of maintaining other departments in the high 
school. 

Business Applications 
Projects and Related Problems: 

I. Trade Discount: 

1. What terms in discount are analogous to Base, Rate, and 
Percentage ? 

2. What discounts are being advertised in the store windows 
in your community? 

3. Do your merchants offer successive discounts to their cus¬ 
tomers ? 

4. Why are successive discounts offered? 

5. Make a key for marking goods. 

6. Bring to class three problems which are met with by the 

merchants in your community in making discount sales. 

% 

7. From a wholesale catalog*find what discounts are offered 
and then calculate the cost of a given article. 

8. What discount is offered on books needed for the normal 
training class? 

9. How much difference would this discount make in the total 
cost of the books purchased up to date for the class? 

10. Can discounts encountered in above projects be figured more 
easily with fractions or per cents ? 

II. Commission: 

1. Are there any brokers or agents working on commission in 
your community? 

2. What is the largest business in Nebraska done on the com¬ 
mission basis? 

3. What was the commission charged on the last car of live 
stock shipped from your community; of grain? What were 
the gross profits; the net profits on a shipment? 


'/ 


176 (26) ARITHMETIC 

4. Who was the consignor and who the consignee of this 
ment ? 

5. Why is commission business necessary? 

6. What terms used in brokerage are analogous to the terms 
used in percentage? 

III. Profit and Loss: 

1. What are the five general types of problems encountered in 
reckoning profit and loss? After visiting some business in 
your community make a type of each problem that might be 
met with in the business. 

2. What terms in profit and loss are analogous to the terms 
used in percentage proper? 

3. Do the business men of your community reckon profits on 
net cost, gross cost, or on selling price ? Which would you 
choose if you were in business ? 

4. Does your school make a profit or sustain a loss in educat¬ 
ing non-resident tuition pupils? 

IV. Banking—Interest and Bank Discount: 

1. What terms in interest are analogous to the terms used in 
percentage proper? 

2. What new element enters into the solution of interest prob¬ 
lems that is not met with in percentage proper? 

3. Illustrate the common method of computing interest. 

4. Do you have a bank account? If so, is.it a checking account, 
a savings account, or a time deposit? How do these ac¬ 
counts differ from each other? 

5. Secure copies of forms used in the banking business from a 
local bank and organize the class into a bank. 

a. Each student make a deposit. 

b. Each student check on his account. Illustrate various 
forms of indorsement. 

c. Each student borrow from the bank and have note dis¬ 
counted. 

d. Borrow a like amount for the same time and compute 
the interest. 

e. Make draft payable to a book company in Chicago as 
payment for books bought for the normal training class. 





ship- 


ARITHMETIC 


(27) 177 


6. What is the legal rate of interest in Nebraska ? 

7. What rate of interest is paid on savings accounts in the 
local bank? 

8. What rate of interest is paid on farm loans in your com¬ 
munity ? 

9. What is usury? 

10. If ten dollars had been deposited in a savings bank for you 
on your first birthday at three and a half per cent interest 
compounded annually, how much would you have if you 
closed your account today? How much would this account 
be worth on your twenty-first birthday? 

# 

V. Investments—Stocks and Bonds: 

1. What is the difference between a stock certificate and a 
bond ? 

2. What terms used in solving problems concerning stocks are 
analogous to the terms used in percentage; in bonds? 

3. Does your school district have a bonded indebtedness? 
What is the amount of the bonds? What is the rate of in¬ 
terest? How much interest does the district pay each year? 

4. Secure samples of stock certificates from a local corporation. 

5. What is the par value of the stock issued by some local 
corporation or bank? What is the market value? What 
rate of interest does it pay on its par value; on its market 
value? Is it a good investment? 

6. Do you have a liberty bond? What is the market value 
today of a hundred dollar liberty bond of the first issuance ? 

7. Study stock markets from the newspapers for the next ten 
days and figure the loss or gain on a selected block of 
stock. 

VI. Insurance: 

1. What terms in insurance are analogous to the terms used 
in the solution of the problems of percentage proper? 

2. Do you carry any form of insurance? * 

3. What is the purpose of insurance ? 

4. Examine a sample of a fire insurance policy. How much 


178 (28) 


ARITHMETIC 




fire insurance is carried on your school house? What is the 
premium; the rate of insurance? 

5. What premium would you have to pay per thousand upon 
an ordinary life policy in some company you select? What 
would be the rate of insurance ? What premium would you 
have to pay per thousand dollars upon a twenty payment life 
policy in the same company? What would be the rate of 

4 insurance on this policy ? 

6. From someone who carries War Risk Insurance learn what 
rate of insurance he pays. 

7. What is your expectancy of life according 1 to the American 
Table of Mortality? How does this affect insurance pre¬ 
miums ? 

VII. Taxes: 

1. What terms used in taxes are analogous to the terms used 
in percentage proper? 

2. What was the cost of operating your school last year? 
What was the levy? How much school tax did your father 
pay? 

3. How much money has been voted to meet the expenses of 
the school for this year ? What is the tax rate on the actual 
value of the property in the school district? 

4. Examine the tax list in the county court house. Examine 
the tax receipt given someone in your community. 

5. What is the tax rate for the city or village? What is the 
levy for the county; for the state? 

6. What is the total tax levy in your community? What tax 
rate does this make on the actual valuation of the property ? 

Readings: 

Klapper—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapter XII and Chapter XV. 

Brown & Coffman—How to Teach Arithmetic, Chapters XV, XVI 
and XVII. • 

Stone—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Pages 123-148. 

Lennes—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Chapters XI, XIII-XXII. 

Summary and Review of Percentage and Its Applications 

An* excellent summary can be made of this topic by referring to 
Figure 16, page 259, of Klapper, “The Teaching of Arithmetic”. Make a 
problem and use the same figures, but by changing the terms illustrate 
the identity of method of solving all of the problems listed under per¬ 
centage and its applications. 


ARITHMETIC 


(29) 179 


LIST OF REFERENCES 

pMonroe—Measuring- the Results of Teaching*, Houghton Mifflin 
Company, Chicago. 

•Klapper—The Teaching of Arithmetic, D. Appleton and Co., Chicago. 

fStone—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Benj. H. Sanborn & Co., Chi¬ 
cago. 

Brown & Coffman—How to Teach Arithmetic, Row, Peterson & Co., 
Chicago. 

-(-Eighteenth Yearbook of the National Society for Study of Educa¬ 
tion, Part II, Pub. School Pub. Co., Bloomington, Ill. 

fLennes—The Teaching of Arithmetic, Macmillan Co., Chicago. 

Thorndike—The Psychology of Arithmetic, Macmillan Co., Chicago. 

Suggestive List of Modern Texts 
Grade School Standard 

Hoyt and Peet—Everyday Arithmetic, Advanced, Houghton Mifflin 
Co., Chicago. 

Wentworth-Smith—Arithmetic (new edition), Ginn and Company, 
Chicago. 

Hamilton—Essentials of Arithmetic, American Book Company, Chi¬ 
cago. 

Thorndike—The Thorndike Arithmetics, Rand McNally & Co., Chi¬ 
cago. 

High School Standard 

Stone and Mills—Higher Arithmetic, Benj. H. Sanborn & Co., Chi¬ 
cago. 

Wentworth-Smith—Higher Arithmetic, Ginn and Company, Chicago. 

Standardized Tests 

Monroe—Diagnostic Tests in Arithmetic, Parts II, III, IV, Bureau 
of Educational Measurements and Research, Emporia, Kansas. 

Monroe—Standardized Reasoning Tests in Arithmetic, Bureau of 
Educational Measurements and Research, Emporia, Kansas. 

Practice Tests 

Courtis—Standard Practice Tests, World Book Co., Chicago, Ill. (For 
Remedial Instruction.) 


*One of these books for each four members of the class. 
tOne each in library for reference. 

Jin Professional Training Library. 







GEOGRAPHY 

Prof. E. E. Lackey 
Wayne State Teachers College 


182 (32) 


GEOGRAPHY 


Geography 


t 


Introduction 

Students who enter this course have a right to expect much more 
for their twelve weeks of time than a mere rehearsal of elementary 
school geography. With the added maturity of intellect and the greater 
interest in human relationships, gained through several years of experi¬ 
ence and study, the dragging before them, in brief review, of the bare 
skeleton of geographic facts and locative geography would certainly be 
far from satisfying. 

This course purposes to help the pupils and teacher to clothe this 
geographic skeleton with the flesh and blood of geographic principles and, 
if possible, vitalize the whole by a new angle of approach. It will be 
impossible to realize largely on this ideal when so much is to be done 
in so short a time. But it is hoped that enough of the spirit of the new 
geography has been woven in to insure an abiding interest in the subject 
and its possibilities in the training of folks for intelligent participation 
in all matters of mutual interest among the people of the world. 

Suggested Lesson Distribution 

This course provides, as a minimum, the materials for twelve weeks 


work in geography divided as follows: 

I. Principles of Geography.;.Three weeks 

II. Definition and Aims of Geography.One week 

III. Cycles of Work in Geography (optional).(One week) 

IV. The Western Hemisphere.Five weeks 

V. The Eastern Hemisphere.Three weeks 

Problem Method 


This minimum material is organized around significant problems. 
These problems are briefly outlined to assist the pupils in gathering 
facts and recalling data. 

A major problem with its outline and references ought to constitute 
the minimum for a day’s work. If the solution of the major problem 








GEOGRAPHY 


(33) 183 


is not enough for one day, the teacher may draw upon the related and 
elective problems for supplementary work or special reports. Not more 
than two or three of the major problems will require more than one day 
for their solution. Several major problems have been marked optional, 
so if time becomes limited some of these may be omitted, and time used 
for summaries and review. 

Teachers unfamiliar with the problem method of attack will be aided 
by the “Outline of the Problem” which will assist them in bridging over 
from the topical method of treatment to the problem method. References 
appended to each problem facilitate the work and make rapid progress 
possible. It is recommended that the teacher and pupils read the short 
article on the Problem Method of Attack on pages 109 to 111 in Studies 
in the Principles of Geography, by E. E. Lackey. 

If students attacking this course are not lead to concentrate upon 
the solution of the problem in hand, they will lose themselves in the 
details of the subject matter and become confused and discouraged. 
Here must the skill of the teacher come in, directing the attack of the 
student so that he sees clearly the objective to be attained and the means 
and methods of attaining that objective. In no other course in the curric¬ 
ulum will a diffuse attack obtain such disastrous results. 

Texts and References 

It will be noted that the course is based on a survey of grade text 
book material enhanced by additional references to books of higher 
grade. Each student will need a copy of one of the grade text books. 
It is better that all the grade text books referred to be represented in 
the class rather than that all the students have the same author. The 
work on the principles of geography is throughout enhanced by Lackey’s 
The Principles of Geography and Dryer’s High School Geography; the 
work on North America by Sutherland & Sanford’s Practical Exercises 
in Geography; that on South America and the Eastern Hemisphere by 
Smith’s Commerce and Industry. The references marked (*) are val¬ 
uable optional references. 


Visual Geography 

The more vivid and real a subject can be made, the more it appeals 
to the student, the better it is understood. To people who live on the 
plains, mountains are hard to realize without models and pictures and 
the unlimited view of the plains is just as difficult to imagine for people 
who live in the mountains. 

The ideal way would of course be for the pupil actually to see all 
of the things described in geography, but since this is impossible, the 
pupil must be initiated to these geographical facts through representa¬ 
tive, illustrative material. 


184 (34) 


GEOGRAPHY 


Next to the real thing, perhaps, pictures stand foremost in interest 
and usefulness.* In fact, “picture study is invaluable in geography 
teaching. A picture, if wisely selected, (1) enables a pupil to take in at 
a glance a complex relationship, economically and accurately, (2) recalls 
a concrete, specific situation, (3) gives, to its reproduction of the original, 
an appearance of reality, (4) is easily understood, and (5) arouses ques¬ 
tions which lead the pupil far beyond the immediate purpose of the 
picture”. To sum up, it might be said that the best things about pictures 
in geography teaching are economy of acqudstion and unity of impression. 

Stereographs have a great advantage over the ordinary picture in 
that they give the appearance of three dimensions and are much to be 
desired over ordinary pictures. No school can be considered equipped 
for the teaching of modern geography without a set of good stereographs. 
“The lantern offers the particular advantage of enabling the whole class 
readily to observe the same picture at the same time.”! 

“The crowning achievement in the reproduction of that which is 
good to see is the motion picture. * * * The changing relationships help 
the child to get the ‘feel’ as well as the ‘know’ of the pictures. The 
moving picture is the nearest approach to first hand observation. * * * 
School teachers have been very conservative in their attitude toward 
the picture field as an educational agent. The strong appeal of the 
moving picture to people of all ages, and the vivid mental impressions 
thereby secured, suggest the desirability of making a special study of 
the wonderful educational possibilities of the motion picture.”! 

The Department is indebted to Superintendent C. Ray Gates, form¬ 
erly of Columbus, for permission to use the list of suggested stereographs 
in The Course of Study for the City Schools of Columbus. 

Maps and Globes 

No school can be considered equipped to teach geography without 
a good globe and adequate supply of wall and outline maps. 


*Holtz—Principles and Methods of Teaching Geography, Macmillan. 
tBranom—The Teaching of Geography, Ginn & Co. 



GEOGRAPHY 


(35) 185 


I. PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY 

THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
Composition and Origin 

Problem: 

What are the materials of which the earth is made, how came they 
to occupy the positions they now hold and how do they influence 
life forms on the earth? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Names applied to solid, liquid and gaseous portions; (2) La- 
Placian and Planetecimal Theories of the earth’s origin; (3) Gaseous 
components of the atmosphere and the special value of each to life 
forms; (4) Adaptations of plant and animal forms to environmental 
conditions. 

Related Problems: 

^ 4 

1. Why do not fish in the water or worms in the soil die for want 
of air? 

2. What is the chief difference between animals and man? Animals 
and plants? 

3. On a sheet of paper in two parallel columns, compare and con¬ 
trast the main points of the two principal theories of the origin 
of the earth. 

Stereographs for Section I: 

Homes 412-428-448-450-459-515-569-581-962-262-390-395-812; Soil 10- 
11-200-403-273-193-845-933-469-519-879-2,16; Atmosphere 49-290-291- 
276;Natural Forms of Land—Mountains and Valleys 14-27-80-460- 
465-471-237-292-244-245-247-253-255; Plains 152-201-215-375-543- 
544; Water Forms—Lakes 51-52-202-444-481-583-586-711-822-850; 
Rivers 74-108-163-165-223-244-814-821; Harbors 349-315-423-554-604- 
777-928-930; Canals 182-339-340-785; Falls 25-54-65-69-70-72-57-588- 
697; Ocean 61-62-29-30-145-82-83-318-353-389-828-954-367; Highways 
40-41-42-44-53-266-430-461; Pioneers 845; People of today 212; Races 
—Negroes 172-187-810-811-816-812-817-818-809-997; Indians 192-194- 
475; Eskimo 390-392-393-395-593; Japanese 961-963-965-970-1000. 

References: 

Dryer, High School Geography, pp. 226-228;243-250; Whitbeck, 3-10; 
22-29; ^Salisbury, Physiography, p. 3; *Arey-Bryant-Clendenin & 


186 (36) 


GEOGRAPHY 


Morey, Physiography, 46-48; *Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, Elements 
of Geography, 257-290; Lackey, Studies in the Principles of Geogra¬ 
phy, 8-10. 

Causes of the Seasons 

» 

Problem: 

Why do we have such marked change of seasons while in the Canal 
Zone they do not? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Seasonal variations in temperature here and in Canal Zone; 

(2) Average slant of the sun’s rays in Nebraska as compared with 
their average slant in the Canal Zone; (3) Reasons for (2) as found 
in the following: (a) shape of the earth; (b) rotation of the earth; 
(c) revolution of the earth; (d) inclination of axis; (e) parallelism 
of the earth’s axis; (4) Relation of the above facts to the heating 
effects of the sun’s rays. 

* 

Related Problems: 

1. Why should the contrast between summer and winter become 
greater from the equator toward the poles? 

2. Why does the sun appear so much farther south in winter than 
in summer? 

3. Compare the length of June and December days on the 45th 
parallel. (See almanac.) 

4. Compare the length of June days in Texas with their length in 
Nebraska. 

5. Make a drawing to show the four positions of the earth in its 
relation to the sun at the times of the solstices and equinoxes. 

References: 

Dryer, 11-15; *Arey, 10-12; *Salisbury, 341-346; Whitbeck, 12; 
Dodge, 10-16; Atwood, 267-271; McMurry & Parkins, 225-227; Brig¬ 
ham & McFarlane, 392-395; *Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, 13-18; Lack¬ 
ey, 15-18. Holtz, 258. 

Longitude, Latitude, and Time 

Problem: 

How are longitude and latitude related to human affairs? 


GEOGRAPHY 


(37) 187 


Outline of Problem: 

(1) Origin and meaning of terms, longitude and latitude; (2) Use as 
to location of places; (3) Relation of longitude to time; (4) Relation 
to land survey; (5) Use in ocean travel; (6) Need and nature of 
standard time; (7) How to determine the longitude and latitude of a 
place; (8) Relation of time east or west to time here. 

Related Problems: 

1. Is your local time faster or slower than standard time and how 
much ? 

2. If I start at sunrise and travel 15 degrees west today, what 
effect will it have on the length of my day? What if I travel 90 
degrees west? What if I should travel east instead of west? 

3. How may one determine his latitude by means of the north star? 

4. How could you determine your latitude by the sun at the time of 
an equinox ? 

5. On an outline map of the United States trace in the standard 
time belts and by means of red ink accentuate the central merid¬ 
ian of each belt. 

References: 

McMurry & Parkins, 228-232; Dodge, 14-15 and 18-19; Whitbeck, 11; 
Dryer, 10-11; Brigham & MacFarlane, 394; Atwood, 269; *Mill, In¬ 
ternational Geography, 16-18; *Arey, 17-29; * Johnson, Mathematical 
Geography, 40-44; *Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, 14-16; Lackey, 18-20. 

Maps and Map Reading 

Problem: 

How are maps of the earth’s surface constructed and by what means 
are different kinds of facts and data represented? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Difficulties in mapping large areas; (2) Disadvantages of the 
globe for small areas; (3) Accurate and inaccurate parts of ortho¬ 
graphic, stereographic, Mercator and the Molweide projections, 
(4) Nature of the network for map-drawing; (5) Relation of merid¬ 
ians and parallels to directions on maps; (6) Means by which dif¬ 
ferent kinds of information may be shown on a map; (7) Compara¬ 
tive shape of maps of the same area on different projections; (8) 
Accuracy of the scale in different parts of the same map. 


188 (38) 


GEOGRAPHY 


Related Problems: 

1. Find a map of North America on the globular projection. What 
direction are Greenland and Bering Strait from the North Pole 
(follow meridians) ? What direction is Newfoundland from 
Greenland? Asia from Alaska? Hudson Bay from Alaska? 

2. Find a map on which the top, bottom, right and left sides are all 
south. 

3. On a Mercator map of the world compare the area of Greenland 
with that of South America. Consult the appendix of your book 
for the areas in square miles. Account for any anomolies noted. 

References: 

Dryer, 18-21; ^Johnson, 224-225; Dodge, 20; *Arey, 50-57; *Salis- 

bury-Barrows-Tower, 24-29; Lackey, 21-25. 


DIVISIONS OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE 


Problem: 


The Sea and Its Margins 


What makes the sea so important in the progress of human affairs? 


Outline of Problem: 

(1) Ratio of land to sea area; (2) Evolution of the sea from a great 
barrier to a great international highway; (3)Physical and economic 
consequences of rising and sinking coast-lines; (4) Causes and effects 
of ocean waves, tides and currents; (5) Influence of modern motive 
power in the conquest of the sea; (6) Place of the ocean cable and 
radio telegraph in sea traffic. 

Related Problems: 

1. Why are there more good harbors along the northern than along 
the southern portion of the Atlantic seaboard of the United 
States ? 

2. What is meant by high and low, ebb and flood, and spring and 
_ neap tides ? 

3. Is the ocean a barrier or a stimulus to international friendship 
and co-operation? 

4. On an outline map of the world trace in the main ocean currents 
and principal routes of ocean traffic. 


GEOGRAPHY 


(39) 189 


References: 

Dryer, 150-170; Whitbeck, Chapters XVI, XVII; *Salisbury-Barrows- 
Tower, 226-256 and 515-533; Brigham & McFarlane, 242-251; At¬ 
wood, 272-275, and maps in appendix; McMurry & Parkins, 241-244; 
Dodge, 21-24 and 57-62; Lackey, 26-31. 


The Surface of the Land 
Topography 

Problem: 

How can the lay of the land sometimes promote and sometimes 
hinder the progress of civilization? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Relative density of population on high and low lands; (2) Com¬ 
parative productiveness of high and low lands; (3) Climate of high 
and low lands compared; (4) Influence of mountains and dissected 
plateaus on transportation and communication; (5) Mountains as 
protective barriers; (6) Mountains in relation to mining, power, 
irrigation and boundary lines; (7) How mountains, plateaus and 
plains are made. 

% 

Related Problems: 

1. Compare and contrast the means of making a living on highlands 
and lowlands in the temperate and torrid zones. 

2. What is the significance in the history of our country of the 
passes through the Appalachian highlands? 

3. Why is the Appalachian so much rougher than the Colorado 
plateau ? 

4. Contrast the human activity in the Amazon with that in the 
Mississippi Valley and give reasons. 

5. Why does the density of population decrease as one goes east¬ 
ward across the great plains of Eurasia ? 

References: 

Dryer, 52-59; Whitbeck, Chapter XII; *Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, 
465-512; Atwood, 10, 63, 75; Dodge, 34-37; McMurry & Parkins, 
1-12; Brigham & McFarlane, 34-40; Lackey, 32-38. 


\ 


190 (40) GEOGRAPHY 

Surface of the Land 
Hydrography 

Problem: 

% 

How are rivers and 1 lakes made and what human interest may be 
served by them at different stages of their development? 

Outline of Problem: 

■ * 

(1) How streams become longer, wider and deeper; (2) Factors in 
the rate of stream erosion; (3) Causes and effects of canons, gorges, 
rapids, etc.; (4) Cause and nature of stream deposits and their re¬ 
lation to man; (5) Stages in the life history of streams and their 
valleys; (6) Origin of glacial, oxbow, and volcanic lakes; (7) Streams 
as natural enemies of lakes; (8) Origin and economic value of fossil 
lake beds; (9) Role of rivers,lakes and their valleys in the historical 
and economic development of peoples. 

Related Problems: 

1. What are the features of the topographic map that would indi¬ 
cate the age of a stream? 

2. Why is the Yangtse River so much more important than the 
Mackenzie ? 

3. How did fresh water Lake Bonneville change into the Great Salt 
Lake ? 

4. Upon what does the durability of stream-built features depend? 
References: 

Appropriate topics in Dryer, 72-128; Whitbeck, Chapter VII, VIII; 
*Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, 336-464; Dodge, 24-34; Atwood, 15, 10, 
36, 17, 42, 198 and 295-296; Brigham & McFarlane, 11-15, 56; *Sem- 
ple, Influence of Geographic Environment, Index; Lackey, 39-41; 
McMurry & Parkins, 7-8. 

Underground Water 
(Optional) 

■ 

Problem: 

How is underground water made available for plants, animals and 
man ? 


GEOGRAPHY 


(41) 191 


Outline of Problem: 

(1) Definition of ground water, capillary zone, saturated zone and 
water table; (2) Importance of ground water to plants; (3) Amount 
of underground water and how it moves; (4) Definition of a well and 
why some are deeper than others; (5) Conditions favorable to good 
and poor wells, constant and intermittent springs, high and low 
water table. 

Related Problems: 

1. Illustrate by means of drawings properly labeled the position of 
water table, capillary zone, saturated zone, springs, wells, 
marshes, lakes and streams. 

2. How are natural caves and subterranean streams made by under¬ 
ground water? 

3. How do you account for the action of geysers and hot springs ? 

4. Why are rainy spells in spring more productive of floods than 
equally intensive spells in autumn? 

References: 

*Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, 321-336; Whitbeck, 91-107; Dryer, 132- 
135; Dodge, 37-38; Lackey, 42-43. 


Problem: 


THE ATMOSPHERE 
Composition and Characteristics 


What is there in the composition and properties of air that makes 
it so necessary to life on the earth? 


Outline of Problem: 

(1) Proportion of each of the elements; (2) Principal function of 
each component part in plant life, in animal life; (3) How change of 
temperature affects volume of air; (4) Comparative weight of equal 
volumes of warm and cold air; (5) How to show that air has weight; 

(6) How variation in moisture content affects the weight of the air; 

(7) Average weight or pressure of the air at sea level; (8) Weight 
of air in relation to altitude; (9) How air pressure is measured; 
(10) Why air pressure is not the same at all times and all places. 


192 (42) 


GEOGRAPHY 


Related Problems: 

1. Why does a balloon rise and upon what property of air does its 
behavior depend? 

2. Describe a barometer, and how it operates. A barograph, a ther¬ 
mometer, a thermograph. 

3. Why does one breathe more deeply in high altitude than at sea 
level ? 

4. Why is the air at the top of a room warmer than near the floor ? 

5. What is there about air that enables a bird or an airplane to fly 
in it? 

References: 

• 

Dryer, 172-184; Whitbeck, 253-267; *Salisbury-Barrow T s-Tower, 44- 
83, 102-111; Dodge 42-46; *Arey, 65-98; *Milham, Meteorology; 6- 
123; ^General Science and Physics texts; Lackey, 44-49. 

Moisture in the Atmosphere 

Problem: 

How does the air gather and dispose of water vapor, and why is 
moisture in the air so important in the affairs of men? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Change in volume when water is changed to water vapor; 

(2) Force causing evaporation; (3) Factors involved in the rate of 
evaporation; (4) Sources of supply of atmospheric moisture; (5) In¬ 
fluence of temperature on the capacity of air for moisture; (6) How 
evaporation influences the temperature of objects from which it takes 
place; (7) Effects of lowering the temperature of saturated air; 
(8) Conditions necessary for the formation of fog, of rain and of 
snow; (9) How dew and frost are formed; (10) Four factors caus¬ 
ing necessary cooling for condensation; (11) Effect of condensation 
on the temperature of the air. How change in humidity influences 
the barometer. 

Related Problems: 

1. What is the molecular theory of the structure of matter and 
how is it useful in explaining the change of water to steam or 
water vapor? 

2. What effect does warming air have on its capacity for holding 
moisture ? 


GEOGRAPHY 


(43) 193 


3. Why do lakes and rivers cool so much more quickly in the autumn 
than they warm up in the spring? 

4. Why is the relative humidity usually higher at night than during 
the day? 

5. How does the barometer behave when the smoke from the chim¬ 
ney comes down? Is the air relatively heavy or light? 

6. How does the weight of water vapor compare with the weight of 
dry air ? How does the weight of dry air compare with the 
weight of moist air? 

References: , 

*Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, 86-100; Whitbeck, Chapter XIII; Ap¬ 
propriate topics in Dryer, 193-216; Dodge, 51-55; McMurry & Par¬ 
kins, 234-240; *Arey, 117-128; *General Science and Physics texts; 

Lackey, 50-55. 


Movements of the Atmosphere 

Problem: 

What are the conditions which justify us in dividing the world into 
planetary belts of winds and calms? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Define winds (horizontal currents) and calms (absence of move¬ 
ment or vertical currents); (2) Causes of winds; (3) Factors deter¬ 
mining the direction of winds; (4) Cause of different wind velocities; 
(5) Location of heat equator; (6) Location and cause of equatorial 
calms (doldrums), trade winds, tropical calms (horse latitudes), anti¬ 
trades, prevailing westerlies and circumpolar winds; (7) Nature and 
movements of the cyclonic winds of the prevailing westerlies; 
(8) Migration of the planetary belts of winds and calms. 

Related Problems: 

1. Why is there a constant low pressure belt along the equator and 
a constant high pressure belt along the tropics? 

2. On an outline map of the world by means of arrows indicating 
wind and shading for calms, show the average location of the 
planetary belts of winds and calms. 

3. Draw a four-inch circle to represent the earth. Indicate the 
location of the poles. Just outside this circle show in vertical 
sections by arrows the nature of the movement of the air in 
different latitudes. 


194 (44) 


GEOGRAPHY 


4. Where are the Brave West Winds and the Roaring Forties? 
Why are they so called? 

References: 

Dryer, 184-192; Whitbeck, Chapter XIV; *Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, 
111-118, 126-142; Atwood, 272; *Arey, 99-116; McMurry & Parkins, 
232-234; Dodge, 46-50; Brigham & McFarlane, 255-259; Lackey, 55- 
59, 61-70; Clark, 88-89. 

Moisture Conditions in the Planetary Belts of Winds and Calms 
Problem: 

Why is there so much variation in the amount of rainfall received 
in the different wind and calm belts of the world? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Cause of the heavy rainfall in the doldrum belt; (2) Why the 
trade wind and horse latitudes are dry belts; (3) How the lows of the 
westerlies bring rainfall; (4) Why rain-storms in our region often 
come up against a southeast wind; (5) Reasons for the wet spots in 
the trade wind belts; (6) Why some west coasts are dry and some 
are wet. 

Related Problems: 

1. Why does the central part of the United States get most precipi¬ 
tation in summer? 

2. Why is the northern portion of the coast of Chili dry and the 
southern portion wet? 

3. Why is the heaviest rainfall in Madagascar and Australia on the 
east coast? 

4. Why is the appearance of a clear sky on the western horizon 
regarded a sign of fair weather? 

5. Why are lows rather than highs storm centers? 

6. Bring to class five or six weather proverbs you have heard and 
be able to judge them from a scientific standpoint. 

References: 

Dryer, 200-203, 217-218; Whitbeck, Chapter XIV; *Salisbury-Bar- 
rows-Tower, 130-132, 159-171; *Arey, 142-144,150-154;Dodge,151-156; 
Brigham & McFarlane, 255-259; Atwood, 273-276, 29, 53, 65; Mc¬ 
Murry & Parkins, 234-240; Lackey, 59-60, 64-66. 


GEOGRAPHY 


(45) 195 


CLIMATIC TYPES IN THE AMERICAS 

(Optional) 

Problem: 

How many distinctly different kinds of climate may be found in the 
western hemisphere and what are the outstanding characteristics 
of each? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) There are fourteen distinct types of climate in the western hem¬ 
isphere. Name of each of these; (2) Average temperature, hot, warm, 
temperate, cool, cold; (3) Temperature evenly distributed or sub¬ 
ject to extremes; (4) Average annual rainfall; (5) Seasonal dis¬ 
tribution of railfall; (6) Direction of prevailing winds; (7) On an 
outline map of North America, trace in the climatic types as shown 
on page 358 in Dryer. Color the intertropical types red, the sub¬ 
tropical and warm temperate types green, the temperate and in¬ 
temperate purple, the cold temperate yellow, and the polar may 
be left white. (See Dryer, 330.) 

Related Problems: 

1. Write the names of the types of climate in a column as taken 
from Dryer and on the corresponding lines in another column 
write the descriptive name as found in Lackey, Studies in the 
Principles of Geography. 

2. Contrast California and Nebraska as to seasonal distribution of 
rainfall and temperature. Why is Nebraska a great corn state 
while California is not? 

3. Devise a suitable form and tabulate the data gathered in (1) to 
(6) above. 

References: 

Dryer, 328-339, 358; Whitbeck, Chapter XV; *Salisbury-Barrows- 
Tower, 154-225; *Milham, Meteorology; Lackey, 71-91; *Bartholo- 
. mew, Economic Atlas, 40. 

Correlatives of the American Types of Climate 

(Optional) 

Problem: 

Where in different parts of the world may climates be found which 
correspond in characteristics to those of America? 


196 (46) 


GEOGRAPHY 


Outline of Problem: 

(1) Each climate found should be compared with its American type; 

(2) On an outline map of the world, using the same color scheme as 
in Lesson above, trace in all the climates of the world. Classify 
them according to the outline in Dryer on page 330. For example: 
5a California, 5b Mediterranean, 5c Chilean, 5d Cape, 5e Southwest 
Australia, la Amazon, lb Kongo, lc Malay. All writing, numbering 
or lettering should be done on the map before the coloring is done. 
Write your legend on the margin or back of the map; (3) Advantages 
of referring all climates back to an American type. 


Related Problems: 

1. What conditions make the climate of Italy and central Chili like 
that of California? 

2. In what respects is the climate of France like that of Oregon? 

3. What makes the climate of the Sahara and Central Australia 
like that of Arizona? 

4. Where in the eastern hemisphere could you go to find a climate 
like Nebraska’s? 

5. Why doesn’t Portland, Maine, have a climate like that of Port¬ 
land, Oregon? 

References: 

Same as in Lesson on Climatic types in the Americas. 


Problem: 


DISTRIBUTION OF LIFE 
Vegetation Regions of the World 
(Optional) 


Why are some parts of the world forested, some covered with grass, 
while others are entirely destitute of vegetation? 


Outline of Problem: 

(1) How food, air, water, heat and light are related to plant life; 

(2) How some plants are dependent upon man for their existence; 

(3) Types of plants as related to moisture; (4) Types of woodlands; 


GEOGRAPHY 


(47) 197 


(5) Types of grasslands; (6) Types of deserts; (7) Let us think of 
the plant world being divided into three parts, namely, deserts, 
grass-lands and forests. These are further divided into cold (tundra) 
and hot deserts, temperate (steppes) and tropical (savannas) grass¬ 
lands, and temperate and tropical forests. What are the character¬ 
istics and causes of each of these? 

Related Problems: 

1. Why do the oak, ash and elm have a resting or dormant period 
during the year? 

2. Why is it more necessary for plants, in a country with a severely 
cold or dry season, to produce seed than in warm moist regions ? 

3. What vegetation regions would you cross in going from the 
Arctic Siberian coast at 110 degrees East Longitude, to the equa¬ 
tor at 15 degrees East Longitude, and thence to the Cape of 
Good Hope? 

References: 

Dryer, 226-242; *Herbertson, Man and His Work; ^Bartholomew, 6-7 
and Vegetation map of each continent; Dodge, 65-72; Atwood, 82, 
124, 156, 216, 230, 265; *Longman, New School Atlas; *Ridgley, 
Vegetation Zones of the Earth; Lackey, 72-96. 

Survey of Human Distribution 
(Optional) 

Problem: 

Why are some parts of the world more densely populated than other 
parts ? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Common necessities of human existence and how they are se¬ 
cured; (2) How a living is earned in different environments; (3) 
Influence of division of labor on human activity; (4) Five or six 
factors upon which the density of population depends; (5) Climatic 
regions most favorable; (6) Why old river valleys are often favor¬ 
able; (7) Why highlands are usually not densely populated; (8) Why 
manufacturing regions can support a dense population. 


Related Problems: 

1. Why is the largest area of dense population in North America 
east of the 100th meridian? 


198 (48) 


GEOGRAPHY 


2. Account for the dense population along the Nile river. 

3. How can the densely populated agricultural areas of India, China 
and Japan support themselves? 

4. Make a list of the twenty-five leading cities of the world and de¬ 
termine what per cent of them are within five hundred feet of 
sea-level. 

References: 

*Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, 586-602; Dryer, 261-262; ^Bartholomew, 
12; Atwood, Population maps and physical maps; Dodge, 78-88; Mill, 
98-108; Brigham & McFarlane, 1-5; *Herbertson, Man and His Work; 
Lackey, 102-106. 

II. DEFINITION AND AIMS OF GEOGRAPHY 

% 

The Nature of Geography and Geographic Principles 

Problem: 

Why is a good definition of geography and an understanding of geo¬ 
graphic principles so important? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Find five or six definitions of geography; (2) Definition of geo¬ 
graphic principles (See Holtz, 256-257 and Lackey, 1-5); (3) Use 
of principles or rules of interpretation in geography, as compared 
with the use of principles or rules in arithmetic or grammar; (4) 
Show how the use of geographic principles is mentioned or implied 
in the definitions studied. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Write three principles or rules dealing with the location of cities. 
(See Hotchkiss.) 

References: 

Dodge & Kirchway, The Teaching of Geography, 1-5, 61; Holtz, 
Principles and Methods of the Teaching of Geography, 1-5, 256-258; 
Dodge; *Hotchkiss, Representative Cities of the United States; Brig¬ 
ham & McFarlane,1-5; Sutherland, The Teaching of Geography, 17- 
36, 166-177; Lackey, 1-5; *McMurry, Special Method in Geography, 
1-3; *Branom, The Teaching of Geography, 3-21, 93-127. 


GEOGRAPHY 


(49) 199 


Aims in Modern Geography 

Problem: • 

What are the reasons for studying modern geography? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Need of abiding interest in geography; (2) Importance of geo¬ 
graphic facts and principles; (3) Modify and correct our attitude 
toward other races, peoples and nations; (4) Use in securing physi¬ 
cal orientation; (5) Need of wisdom in the use of the world’s re¬ 
sources; (6) Need of skill in the use of the tools of geography. 

Elective Problems: 

1. How can geography help to make us better American and better 
world citizens? 

2. Write an essay of not over two hundred words showing how 
geography may lead to a sympathetic study and understanding 
of other races than one’s own. 

3. In what sense may “geographic” principles be considered impor¬ 
tant geographic tools? 

References: 

Holtz, 1-5; Dodge & Kirchway, 1-15; Lackey, 5-7, Introduction to this 
syllabus; Sutherland, 80-95; *McMurry, 1-13; Branom, The Teaching 
of Geography, 39-50, 62-74; Clark, 13-14, 47. 

The Problem Method in Studying Geography 

Problem: 

What are the characteristics of a good problem in geography and 
what are the natural steps in its solution? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Relation to thinking; (2) How principles of geography are in¬ 
volved; (3) Several factors involved in a good problem; (4) How to 
introduce the problem; (5) Steps in the solving of a problem in geog¬ 
raphy; (6) How drill on the facts and principles learned may be 
secured. 

Elective Problems: 

1. How would you work out the following problem: “Why do many 
people go to California to spend the winter”? 


200 (50) 


GEOGRAPHY 


2. Is the problem method of teaching geography easily adapted to 
use with the available text-books in the subject? 

References: 

Lackey, The Principles of Geography, 109-111 and the preface; At¬ 
wood, preface; Dodge and Kirchway, 85-87; Sutherland, 137-144; 
*Earhart, Types of Teaching, 192-219; *Branom, The Project Method 
in Education; Branom, The Teaching of Geography, 51-61, 173-199. 

Measuring the Results of Work in Geography 

(Optional) 

Problem: 

How may a teacher know when her children have acquired reason¬ 
able proficiency in geography? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Study the Hahn-Lackey Geography Scale to determine, (a) num¬ 
ber of different questions used, (b) how the questions in a given 
column compare with each other as to difficulty, (c) how to distin¬ 
guish the memory from the thought questions, (d) how many chil- 
dien were used in constructing this objective scale, (e) how a stand- 
aidized test is more reliable than the ordinary test in geography, 
(f) what per cent each grade should get on Step G, Step M and 
Step S, (g) why an objective scale should be especially valuable 
for a rural teacher, (h) indicate the easy and the difficult end of 
this scale, (2) Study the Courtis Standard Tests in Geography to dis¬ 
cover (a) how much of the world is covered by them, (b) whether 
they test for reasoning as well as for memory, (c) how the tests are 
given, (d) scope of their usefulness. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Study the following geography tests to find out how they are 
given and the particular field in which they may be employed: 
Buckingham’s Geography Test; Starch’s Geography Test, Series 
A; Thompson’s Standardized Tests in Geography; Witham’s 
Standard Geography Tests. 

2. How would you grade a list of ten questions selected from three 
different columns of the Hahn-Lackey Geography Scale? 

References: 

*Monroe, Measuring the Results of Teaching, 255-266; Copies of 
Geography Scales and Tests with their explanation. 


GEOGRAPHY 


(51) 201 


III. CYCLES OF WORK IN GEOGRAPHY 

(Optional) 

Home Cycle or Home Geography 

Problem: 

What are the materials introduced into home geography and why 

should this work constitute the basis of the beginning course in the 
subject ? 

» 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Topics used in this cycle; (2) Purpose of home geography; (3) 
Place of field work and excursions; (4) Grades in which it should 
be given; (5) Correlation with nature and local history; (6) Collec¬ 
tion of local industrial, nature, and historical materials. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Make a list of the chapter subjects as listed in the table of con¬ 
tents of Dodge’s Home Geography. Compare with the list in the 
table of contents in Frye’s Home Geography and *Fairbank’s 
Home Geography. 

2. Make a rather complete list of local industries that could be 
studied by the children. 

3. Seek to find out how the Aims of Geography Teaching as studied 
in previous lessons apply in the teaching of home geography. 

References: 

Holtz, 30-59; Dodge & Kirchway, 26-41; *Dodge, Home Geography; 
*Fairbanks, Home Geography; *Frye, Home Geography; *Payne, 
Geographical Nature Study; *Frye, New Geography, Book I, 18-56; 
*Tarr-McMurry, 1-85; *Brigham & McFarlane, 1-69; *Ridgley & 
Eyestone, Home Geography; *McMurry, 21-49; Survey of Topic in 
Elementary Geography in use in your school; Clark, 17-46. 

First World Cycle or Human Type Studies 

Problem: 

Why should human type studies be given with, or immediately fol¬ 
low, the home geography and what peoples serve best as suitable 
types for this cycle? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Why customs and methods of doing things should contrast sharp¬ 
ly with home environment; (2) Why the Eskimo is a good type for 


202 (52) 


GEOGRAPHY 


the first world cycle; (3) Points to be emphasized in teaching the 
Eskimo; (4) Best time of the year to teach the Eskimo; (5) Make a 
list of eight types that contrast sharply among themselves and with 
the home environment. 

/ J 

Elective Problems: 

1. Study reference books to find out where in the course human type 
studies are introduced. 

2. Name a people that lives in the following typical environments: 
(a) cold; (b) moist hot; (c) dry hot; (d) temperate mountain; 
(e) temperate low plain; (f) island; (g) temperate grasslands; 
(h) temperate woodlands; (i) mining region; (j) manufacturing 
region. 

References: 

* Carpenter, Around the World with the Children; Frye, New Geog¬ 
raphy, Book I, 1-18 or Brigham & McFarlane, 5-8; McMurry & Par¬ 
kins, Index; Sutherland, 111-113; *Ridgley and Eyestone, Survey of 
Elementary Geography in use in your school; Clark, 17-47. 

Second World Cycle or Industrial Geography 

Problem: 

Why is the study of industry such an important phase of geography 
and where in the course is the greatest emphasis given to it? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Definition of industrial geography; (2) How industrial studies 
fulfill requirements in the definition of geography; (3) How the earth 
shapes man’s way of making a living; (4) How man may modify 
natural conditions which impose themselves upon him; (5) How in¬ 
dustrial studies help to solve the problem of the interdependence of 
peoples; (6) How it helps us to see our obligation to other peoples. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Make a list of the industries that should be studied in connection 
with work on Nebraska. For one of these industries, state the 
problem and outline it. 

2. Manufacturing, fishing, quarrying, truck-farming and making 
maple sugar are all industries of New England. Are they equally 
difficult? Which should be reserved for study later than the 
fifth grade? Why? Which are the easiest? Why? 


GEOGRAPHY 


(53) 203 


References: 

Holtz, 222-237; Dodge & Kirchway, 164-180; Sutherland, 74-78, 115 
and 208-209; Survey of Elementary text books in your school; * Allen, 
Industrial Studies, United States, Europe, South America and Asia. 

♦ 

Third World Cycle or Regional Geography 

Problem: 

What do we mean by regional geography, and what .advantages come 
from its use in the upper grades? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Definition of natural region (Atwood says, “A natural region is a 
portion of the earth’s surface throughout which the geographical con¬ 
ditions which help to determine life do not differ greatly”); (2) Re¬ 
lation to physical, climatic, vegetation and mineral regions; (3) All 
elements of geographic interest included; (4) Relation to problem 
method of teaching; (5) Enumerate the interests included as outlined 
in lesson on Aims in Modern Geography Teaching. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why are the Gulf Plains of the United States a natural region? 

2. What are the natural regions of Europe? 

3. What are the geographic conditions which make the Brazilian 
Highlands a natural region? 

4. Study carefully the physiographic or regional maps of United 
States in the Atwood, Brigham & McFarlane, Dodge and Mc- 
Murry & Parkins text-books and determine whether or not each 
follows the regional treatment. You will need to consult the 
reading matter in the text to confirm your conclusions. 

References: 

• 

. Atwood, preface and 1, 4, 127, 158, 220, 231; Dodge, Physical maps of 
United States and the continents; *Dryer, Economic Geography, 95- 
105; Brigham & McFarlane, 34-40; Dryer, 331-339. 


204 (54) 


GEOGRAPHY 


IV. THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE 
NORTH AMERICA 
Introductory 

Problem: 

Why may North America, in the near future, be expected to become 
one of the most important if not the major factor in the progress of 
the civilized world? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Position; (2) Size; (3) Coast; (4) Surface; (5) Climate; (6) 
Vegetation; (7) Mineral resources; (8) Composite people; (9) Pov¬ 
erty of Europe; (10) Backwardness of the yellow race; (11) Trans¬ 
portation facilities; (12) Disadvantages of South America; (13) 
Democratic ideals. 

References: 

Atwood, 1-4; Dodge, 89-101; Brigham & McFarlane, 17-25; McMurry 
& Parkins, 1-13; Dryer, 341-355; *Robinson, Commercial Geography, 
98-108; ^Chamberlain, North America, 1-10; Clark, 53-58. 

UNITED STATES 
Natural Regions 

Problem: 

Why are the people of United States engaged in such a wide range 
of activity? 

Outline -of Problem: 

1. Physiographic Regions—meaning; number; location; how diver¬ 
sity of topography leads to diversity of industry; outline map of 
regions filled in. 

References: *Robinson, 98-101; Atwood, 1-4; Brigham & McFarlane, 
32-40; Dodge, 107-118; Smith Human, 11-14. 

2. Climatic Regions—Temperate east coast; temperate west coast; 
warm east and south coast; warm west coast; east continental 
interior; west continental interior; diversity in distribution of 
temperature and rainfall in relation to diversity of industry; out¬ 
line map of the regions. 

References: Dodge, 102-106; *Dryer, Economic Geography, ‘95-105; 
Dryer, 328-330, and 336-338; *Robinson, 131. 


GEOGRAPHY 


(55) 205 


3. Natural Vegetation Regions—Evergreen forests; hardwood for¬ 
ests; prairie steppes; forest-prairie transition or park steppes; 
deserts and semi-deserts; influence of variety of vegetation on 
diversity of activity; outline map of the regions. 

References: *Robinson, 198; *Dryer, Economic Geography, 95-105; 

*Smith, 186-187; Atwood, 42, 74. 

4. Economic Vegetation Regions—Lumbering areas; grazing and 
dairying areas; mixed farming areas; sugar cane and rice areas; 
cereal areas; subtropical fruit areas; outline map of the regions. 

References: *Dryer, Economic, 102-105; ^Bartholomew, 32-43; At¬ 
wood, sectional maps of the United States; Dodge, 99 and 113; 

*Brigham, Commercial Geography, 121. 


5. Mineral Regions—Coal; iron; copper; zinc; lead; gold; silver; 

cement; petroleum; salt; outline map of the regions. 
References: Smith, 139-167; *Dryer, Economic, 71-77; Atwood, see 
maps; *Robinson, 120-121; Bartholomew, 43, 61-63; Dodge, 133, 136, 
168; Brigham & McFarlane, 50-51; Lackey, 76-86; McMurry & Par¬ 
kins, 218-224. 

New England 

Problem: 

What contributes to the recreational and intellectual facilities of 
this region ? 

Outline of Problem: 


(1) A list of recreational diversions; (2) Location and reasons for 
good hunting and fishing region; (3) Location and reasons for fine 
scenery; (4) Places of historical and literary interest; (5) Why New 
England is an educational center; (6) Influence of density of popu¬ 
lation. 

Problem: 

Why has fishing become an important industry for New England 
rather than a recreational diversion? 


Outline of Problem: 

(1) Kinds of fish available; (2) Influence of continental shelf; (3) 
Converging ocean currents; (4) Source of abundance of food for 
fish; (5) Influence of varying temperatures of water; (6) Preserving 
of fish; (7) Markets for fish. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why should factories be located at waterfalls? 


206 (56) 


GEOGRAPHY 


2. Why are the rocks of New England of so much commercial im¬ 
portance ? 

3. Why has New England developed into such an important manu¬ 
facturing region? 

4. Why has New England lost its one time importance as an agri¬ 
cultural region? 

5. Topical Summary: (1) Location and extent; (2) Surface; (3) 
Climate; (4) Industries; (5) Transportation and cities; (6) Peo¬ 
ple. 

Stereographs: 

(See next problem.) 

References: 

Sutherland and Sanford, Practical Exercises in Geography, 1-16; 
Atwood, 5-13; Brigham & McFarlane, 53-70; Dodge, 119-128; *Clark, 
73-75; McMurry & Parkins, 29; Smith Human, 128-135. 

Atlantic Coastal Plain 

Problem: 

What has determined the location of the inland cities of the coastal 
plain ? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Name six or eight, and the rivers on which located; (2) Breaks 
in transportation; (3) Limit of navigation; (4) Source of power for 
manufacture; (5) Boundary between two regions; (6) Cause of the 
fall line. 

Problem: 

Why has New York City become the metropolis of the world? 
Outline of Problem: 

» 

(1) Verification; (2) Nature of the harbor; (3) Productiveness of 
the hinterland; (4) Roads to the hinterland; (5) European markets; 
(6) Facilities for manufacture. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why has Baltimore become the center of the oyster industry? 

2. Why has fruit growing become the leading industry of Florida? 


GEOGRAPHY 


(57) 207 


3. Why are there so few important cities on the South Atlantic 
coast? 

4. Give reasons for the location of Washington so far from the 
center of the United States. 

5. Why has New York outgrown Philadelphia and Boston? 

6. Why did the early settlers move inland rather than stop on the 
coast? 

7. Topical summary: Follow outline in preceding elsson. 

Stereographs— 

Steel 119-120-121; coal 109-116; glass 122-123-124-126; oil 85-127; 
dairying 67-68-86-87-88-89; farming 59; quarrying 28; fishing 12-13- 
14-63-64; shoes 15-16; wool 17 to 24-113-114; silk 92 to 101. 

Cities—Washington, D. C., 128 to 137-140-142-143; New York 29 to 
50; Boston 3; Other cities 55-58-82-83-104. 

Scenery—61-54-62-105-108-117-146-147-148; 69 to 77. 

& 

References: 

Sutherland & Sanford, 17-30; Dodge, 129-146; Atwood, 14-25; Brig¬ 
ham & McFarlane, 71-112; Clark, 71-73; Smith Human, 118; Mc- 
Murry & Parkins, 29-61. 

Gulf Coastal Plain 

Problem: 

Why has the south become so important in the growing of cotton? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Temperature and length of growing season; (2) Kind of soil; 
(3) Favorable weather for germination and early growth; (4) Good 
weather for harvest; (5) Cotton gin; (6) Cheap labor and planta¬ 
tion system; (7) By-products. 

Problem: 

Why are the timberlands of the south an important asset? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Kinds of trees and the topography on which each grows; (2) 
Naval stores, what they are and how prepared; (3) Transportation 
of lumber; (4) Markets and uses for the lumber. 

Elective Problems: 

1. What conditions determine the commercial importance of New 
Orleans ? 




208 (58) 


GEOGRAPHY 


2. What conditions favor the development of Birmingham into a 
leading city of the south? 

3. Why are there so few good harbors on the Gulf coast ? 

/ 

4. Why have we been unable to raise enough rice for our own use ? 

5. How are the negroes at the same time a necessity and a burden 

to the southland? 

% 

6. Which would you rather own, an acre of sugar cane or an acre 
of sugar beets? Why? 

7. Topical summary: Follow the generalized outline. 
Stereographs: 

Products—cotton 154-155-156-158-160-161-177-178-179-180; cocoanut 
167-168; turpentine 149-150-151-159; sugar 173-191; rice 181-182-183; 
Life- -172-186; Cities—174-175-176-187-188. 

References: 

Sutherland & Sanford, 31-47; Brigham & McFarlane, 113-128; At¬ 
wood, 14-25; Dodge, 146-152; Clark, 69-71; Smith Human, 16-36; 
McMurry & Parkins, 94-128. 

Appalachian Highlands 

Problem: 

In what important ways have the Appalachian Highlands influenced 
the history of our country? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Influence on westward migrations; (2) Strategical importance 
in several wars; (3) Relation to water power; (4) Relation to valu¬ 
able mineral products; (5) Protection to early colonists; (6) Relation 
to solidarity in Revolutionary War; (7) Isolation of some good Amer¬ 
ican people; (8) Plateaus, mountains and valleys included. 

Problem: 

Why is western New York a great fruit and truck-farming region? 
Outline of Problem: 

(1) Late springs; (2) Late autumn; (3) Influence of wind belt; (4) 
Extensive market; (5) Kind of soil; (6) Amount and distribution 
of rainfall; (7) Influence of canneries and wine making. 

Elective Problems: 

1. What conditions have made dairying important in New York 
state ? 

2. How do you account for the non-progressiveness of the people in 
the southern Appalachian region? 


GEOGRAPHY 


(59) 209 


3. Why is the Ohio river subject to such damaging floods? 

4 . Why is the Appalachian region so important in coal production? 

5. Topical summary. 

/ 

References: 

Appropriate topics in Sutherland & Sanford, 48- 66; Dodge, 131-141; 
Atwood, 20-37; Brigham & McFarlane, 73-112; Smith Human, 145- 
156; McMurry & Parkins, 29-61. 


The Lake and Prairie Plains 

Problem: 

Why are the prairie plains so important in the production of corn? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Season of most precipitation; (2) Temperature of summer days 
and nights; (3) Length of summer days; (4) Nature of soil and 
topography; (5) Demand for corn; (6) Comparative high yield; 
(7) Limited amount of corn land in the world. 

Problem: 

Why are the Great Lakes the greatest inland water way of the 
world ? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Water route to heart of the continent; (2) Productiveness of 
the hinterland; (3) Leads toward the world’s great markets; (4) Rel¬ 
ative cost of rail and water transportation; (5) Valuable minerals at 
each end of this waterway. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Southern Michigan is a good fruit country. Fruit is not profit¬ 
able in Wisconsin. Why this difference in favor of Michigan? 

2. Why is Wisconsin a leading state in the dairy business? 

3. Why has Minneapolis become the greatest flour milling city in 
the world? 

4. Why has Chicago so rapidly developed into the greatest fresh 
water port in the world? 

5. Account for the growth and importance of Duluth, Detroit, St. 
Louis and Omaha. 

6. Topical summary. 


210 (60) 


GEOGRAPHY 


Stereographs: 

Industries—agriculture; sugar beets 210-211; wheat 226; corn 216- 
193; lumbering—219-220-221-222-224-225; mining—iron 203-207-209- 
227-228-234; copper 204-205. Lakes—202-203-204-205-206-208. Cities 
—Chicago 212-215. 

References: 

*Hotchkiss, Representative Cities; Appropriate Topics in Sutherland 
& Sanford, 67-106; Atwood, 39-52; Brigham & McFarlane, 129-154; 
Dodge, 153-165; Clark, 58-64; Smith Human, 163-172; McMurry & 
Parkins, 63-93. 

The Great Plains and Interior Highlands 
How do “cyclonic lows” bring moisture to the Great Plains ? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Belt of winds; (2) Nature of “lows”; (3) Their direction and 
rate of movement; (4) Why our rain cannot come from the Pacific 
Ocean; (5) Why it cannot come from the north; (6) How “lows” 
bring rain to us from the southeast. 

Problem: 

Why is the Ozark uplift an important natural and economic region? 
Outline of Problem: 

(1) Its relation to the Appalachian Highlands; (2) Its valuable 
minerals; (3) The fruit industry; (4) Importance of lumber; (5) 
Relation to oil and gas; (6) Nearness to markets. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why does the eastern portion of the Great Plains get more rain¬ 
fall than the western? 

' a 

2. Why is winter wheat grown in southern Nebraska and Iowa while 
spring wheat is grown in the Dakotas and Minnesota? 

3. Account for the meat-packing industry in Sioux City, Omaha and 
Kansas City. 

4. Why were sod houses so important in the early settlement of the 
Great Plains? 

5. Why are salt and gypsum deposits found in central Kansas? 

6. Why has ^Denver become so important a city? 

7. Topical summary. 


GEOGRAPHY 


(61) 211 


Stereographs: 

See preceding problem. 

References: 

Atwood, 53-58; Sutherland & Sanford, 111-127; Brigham & McFar- 
lane, 113-154; Dodge, 149-165; *Dryer, Economic Geography, 106- 
161; Clark, 58-64; Smith Human, 36-54, 157-160; McMurry & Par¬ 
kins, 63-93. 

Reeky Mountain and Intermont Plateau and Basin Regions 
Problem: 

Why is irrigation practiced so extensively in these regions ? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Why the rainfall is so meager; (2) Value of mountain streams; 
(3) How water is gotten and applied to crops; (4) Kinds of crops 
grown; (5) Governmental cooperation; (6) Favorable climate. 

Problem: 

Why is grazing carried on to so great an extent in this part of the 
United States? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Why farming is impractical; (2) Nature of grass; (3) Acreage 
for one animal; (4) Cost of producing feeders on this land; (5) Re¬ 
lation to the finishing region; (6) Markets for the meat. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Account for the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River. 

2. Why is the region in the vicinity of Great Salt Lake called the 
Great Basin? 

3. Explain the scarcity and direction of the railroads in these 
regions. 

4. Why are cities and towns more numerous in the vicinity of Salt 
Lake City than elsewhere in the Great Basin? 

5. What are the attractions in these regions for the tourists and 
pleasure seekers? 

6. Topical summary. 


212 (62) 


GEOGRAPHY 


Stereographs: 

Industries—mining—gold 249; copper 265 to 268; ranching 257-259. 
Scenery—Yellowstone 235 to 243; Colorado 244 to 248-250-251-254- 
255; Arizona 271 to 278. Cities—256-269. 

References: 

Brigham & McFarlane, 155-172; Dodge, 165-170; Atwood, 59-69; 
Sutherland & Sanford, 129-158; Clark, 64-67; Smith Human, 72-90; 
McMurry & Parkins, 129-166. 

Pacific Mountains and Lowlands 

Problem: 

Formerly, most of the people of California were engaged in mining. 
Why is this not true today? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Placer mining no longer possible; (2) Disappointed prospectors; 

(3) Need of food for people; (4) Fine soil and climate; (5) Good 
fruit and wheat country; (6) Petroleum and gas wells; (7) Need for 
entertainment for tourists and pleasure seekers. 

Problem: 

Why are Washington and California more densely populated than 
Oregon ? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Comparative amounts of lowlands; (2) Comparative amounts of 
rough arid lands; (3) Relation to hinterland and mountain passes; 

(4) Harbor and shipping facilities. 

Elective Problems: 

1. What geographic conditions helped to make San Francisco one 
of the largest cities on the Pacific coast? 

2. Account for the growth and importance of Seattle and Los An¬ 
geles. 

3. What makes California such a great fruit country? 

4. Why does this region have a wet winter and a dry summer? 

5. Why does the Pacific have fewer large cities than the Atlantic 
coast ? 

6. Topical summary. 

i 

Stereographs: 

Industries—agriculture: fruit raising, 279-280-281-303-310; grains, 
309; ostrich farm, 283; lumbering—294 to 300-304-305; fishing—306- 


GEOGRAPHY 


(63) 213 


307-308; Cities—San Francisco 284 to 287-315. Scenery—288 to 293- 
301-302-311-312-313-314. 

References: 

Dodge, 170-174; Atwood, 70-81; Brigham & McFarlane, 173-184; 
Sutherland & Sanford, 158-180; Clark, 67-68; Smith Human, 100- 
114; McMurry & Parkins, 129-166. 

Outlying Possessions of the United States 

Problem: 

In what ways has the purchase of Alaska proved to be a good invest¬ 
ment for the United States? 

Outline of Problem: 

• 

(1) Cost and from whom purchased; (2) Location and extent; (3) 
Climatic and topographic disadvantages; (4) Agricultural possibil¬ 
ities; (5) Mineral wealth; (6) Fishing and sealing industries; (7) 
What we have done and what we can do for the natives. 

Problem: 

How has the responsibility which we assumed in the Philippine 
Islands proved beneficial both to us and the Filipinos? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) How this responsibility came to us; (2) Tyranny of Spanish rule; 
(3) The present government of the Filipinos; (4) Location and ex¬ 
tent; (5) Topography and climate; (6) World needs administered 
to by these people; (7) Their present attitude toward us; (8) Our 
altruistic attitude toward them; (9) How we have benefited; (10) Our 
future policy toward these people. 

Elective Problems: 

1. How did we acquire the Hawaiian Islands and why are they a 
valuable possession? 

2. What lands in Central America and the West Indies are a part 
of the United States, and what benefits may the world derive 
from our possession of them? 

3. Topical summary. 

Stereographs: 

Alaska—316-317-318-319. Philippine Islands—139-349 to 363. Porto 
Rico—320. Hawaiian Islands—341 to 347. Cuba—361-422-424-425- 
426-427. 


214 (64) 


GEOGRAPHY 


i 



References: 

Sutherland and Sanford, 181-193; Brigham & McFarlane, 185-198; 
Dodge, 174-182; Atwood, 83-95; McMurry & Parkins, 167-175. 

CANADA 

Problem: 

What constitutes the basis of Canada’s present importance and fu¬ 
ture prospects? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Location and extent; (2) Topography and climate; (3) Soils; 
(4) Waterways; (5) Resources in fish; (6) Mineral products; (7) 
Products of the soil; (8) Quality of the people; (9) Government 
efficiency;• (10) Peace loving neighbors. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why are there fewer cities on the Canadian than on the Ameri¬ 
can side of the Great Lakes ? 

2. Why is Hudson Bay not used much as a waterway and what are 
the prospects for its becoming more important? 

3. Account for the great lumbering industry of British Columbia. 

4. Why have the English been so successful in developing Canada 
while the French were not? 

5. Account for the growth and importance of Montreal and Winni¬ 
peg. 

6. Why is fruit-growing so important in Ontario? 

7. Topical summary. 

Stereographs: 

Industries—agriculture—376-377-378; mining—385-386-387; whaling 
—397. Cities—369-371-372-388. People—390-392-393. Scenery— 
364-366-367-368-373-374-380-381-382-383-384-391-396. 

References: 

Atwood, 103-111; Brigham & McFarlane, 199-209; Dodge, 183-191; 
Smith, 301-310; Lackey, 86-90; Clark, 77-79; Smith Human, 128, 135, 
179-181: McMurry & Parkins, 175-189. 


v 



GEOGRAPHY 


(65) 215 


MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES 
Problem: 

What forces have retarded the development of the Mexican people 
into an important nation? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Spanish and Indian ancestry; (2) Erratic, temperamental peo¬ 
ple; (3) Unstable government; (4) Poor land distribution; (5) Lack 
of genius for invention and in using modern machinery; (6) Poor 
educational facilities; (7) Roughness of country; (8) Poor facilities 
for communication and transportation; (9) Large variety of climate; 
(10) Irritable, unsympathetic neighbors. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why are we not so well acquainted with our Mexican as with 
our Canadian neighbors ? 

2. Account for the peculiar distribution of rainfall on the large 
islands of the West Indies. 

3. Why is Central America divided into several small independent 
nations, none much larger than half of Nebraska? 

4. In what ways are the people of Central America and the West 
Indies doing their part in supplying the world’s needs? 

5. Topical summary. 

Stereographs: , 

Mexico—398 to 416. 

References: 

Dodge, 191-200; Smith, 210-228; Brigham & McFarlane, 211-218; 
Atwood, 111-120; Lackey, 73-76; Clark, 84-86; Smith Human, 179; 
McMurry & Parkins, 190-208. 

The Name and Place Geography of United States 

Problem: 

What names and places should be included in a list of minimum 
essentials in the locative geography of the United States ? 

Suggestions for Making the List: 

(1) Topographic regions and their locations; (2) Climatic regions; 
(3) Natural vegetation regions; (4) Ten important rivers; (5) Three 
canals; (6) States and their capitals; (7) Eight large lakes; (8) 


216 (66) 


GEOGRAPHY 


Bordering waters; (9) Natural wonders: Niagara Falls, Yosemite 
Park, Yellowstone Park, Crater Lake Park, Mammoth Cave, Natural 
Bridge, Grand Canyon; (10) Cities: All capitals, Philadelphia, De¬ 
troit, New York, Pittsburgh, Washington, New Orleans, Galveston, 
Chicago, St. Louis, Cleveland, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Minneapolis, Du¬ 
luth, San Francisco, Seattle, Los Angeles, Baltimore, Fall River, 
Kansas City, Omaha, Sioux City, Birmingham. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Be able to locate all of the above places on an unlettered map 
of the United States. 

2. Work to be able to draw a free-hand sketch of the United States 
showing the coastal and boundary features, six important rivers, 
five chief mountain ranges, and the location of ten important 
cities. 

3. Make up a supplementary list of places that you think might be 
included in the list of minimum essentials. 


Locative Geography of Our Outlying Possessions, and of Canada, 

Mexico and Central America 


Problem: 


Make a list of all the important names and places that ought to be 
remembered in connection with the study of lands mentioned in the 
title of this problem. 

Suggestions for Making the List: 

• 

(1) Eight outlying possessions; (2) Four important cities in our pos¬ 
sessions; (3) Several important products from possessions; (4) Con¬ 
cerning Canada name and locate: Bordering waters, five rivers, two 
islands, five cities, six lakes, three important products; (5) Con¬ 
cerning Mexico name and locate: Bordering waters, one mountain 
range, the capital and three other cities, three important products, 
two peninsulas, one volcano; (6) Concerning Central America name 
and locate: Six countries and their capitals, two important products; 
(7) Concerning the West Indies give: Four largest islands, three 
independent countries, bordering waters, three cities, two important 
products. 

Elective Problems: 


1. Be able to point out all of the above on an unlettered map of the 
respective regions. 

2. What other places ought to be included in our list of minimum 
essentials on these lands? 


GEOGRAPHY 


(67) 217 


Problem: 


SOUTH AMERICA 

Natural Regions 
(Optional) 


What factors help to make South America a land of marvelous op¬ 
portunities ? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Diversity of topography; (2) Seasonal and areal distribution of 
rainfall; (3) Variety and amount of vegetation; (4) Density of popu¬ 
lation; (5) Mineral resources; (6) Capacity to fulfill world needs; 
(7) Value of waterways; (8) Distance to world’s great markets as 
compared with eastern United States; (9) Railway prospects; (10) 
The great need for intelligent development; (11) Some handicaps. 


Elective Problems: 

1. Why has South America been less rapidly settled than North 
America ? 

2. Why should United States establish closer trade relations with 
South America? 

3. Why do most of the European immigrants to South America go 
to the southern countries? 

4. Why is South America as a whole warmer than North America? 

Stereographs: 

Cities — 449-466-451-452-453-454-487-488-489. Industries — 443-445- 
446-447-448-457-464-467-468-469-470-474-483. Lakes—481-482-444-475. 
Commerce—485-486. Travel and Transportation—442-473-477-478- 
471-472-490-491. People—450-456-459. Mountains—460-461-465-479- 
480. 

References: 

Atwood, 125-129; Brigham & McFarlane, 219-229; Dodge, 201-207; 
^Bartholomew, 44-46; *Goode, School Atlas; Lackey, 71 ff; Smith 
Human, 375-381; McMurry & Parkins, 245, 252. 


The Andean Highlands 

Problem: 

Why are the Andean Highlands more densely populated than the 
lowlands of South America? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Verification (see population map); (2) Temperature, rainfall and 


218 (68) 


GEOGRAPHY 


vegetation in lowlands. Contrast with highlands; (3) Relation to 
health and human activity; (4) Why Spanish immigrants seek high¬ 
lands; (5) Agricultural activities; (6) Nearness to coast; (7) Mineral 
wealth. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why has Bogota two wet and two dry seasons each year? 

2. Why is the southern coast of Peru such a dry region? 

3. How will the Panama Canal influence the development of the 
Andean countries? 

4. Why is there so much rainfall on the western slope of the south¬ 
ern Andes? 

5. Explain the cause of the Desert of Atacama and the rich mineral 
deposits found there. 

6. Account for the progressiveness of Bolivia. 

References: 

Atwood, 136-147; Brigham & McFarlane, 235-239; Dodge, 211-214; 
Smith, 345-350; Clark, 86-92. Smith Human, 401-407; McMurry & 
Parkins, 252-278. (For this and following problem.) 

Highlands of Brazil and Guiana 

Problem: 

Why is Brazil a country of so wide a range of interests? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) List the different lines of work engaged in by the people; (2) In¬ 
fluence of size of country; (3) How difference in latitude is a factor; 
(4) Variation in elevation; (5) Variation in amount and seasonal dis¬ 
tribution of rainfall; (6) Variety of soil; (7) Degrees of civilization; 
(8) Mineral wealth; (9) Variety of plant life; (10) Influence of coast 
line and large rivers. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why is south central Brazil a great grassland and grazing coun¬ 
try? 

2. Why does Brazil produce more than half the world’s supply of 
coffee? 

3. Why is Guiana so sparsely settled? 


GEOGRAPHY 


(69) 219. 


4. What are the conditions which make sugar production important 
in Guiana? 

5. What is tapioca, how made, and why is it an important crop in 
Guiana ? 

j 

References: 

Brigham & McFarlane, 231 and 239; Atwood, 130-136; Dodge, 203 and 
208; Smith, 226-235; Smith Human, 388-391; McMurry & Parkins, 
252-266. 


Amazon and Orinoco Lowlands 

Problem: 

How do you account for the sparse population and the low state of 
human society in the Amazon Valley? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Verification (see population map and Dryer, Economic Geogra¬ 
phy, pp. 27-32); (2) Race and temperament of natives; (3) Impene¬ 
trable forests; (4) Effect of high temperature and humidity on ac¬ 
tivity of people; (5) Living easily secured; (6) Wants are few; (7) 
Effect of regional conditions on white immigration. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why are there so few cities on the Amazon River? 

2. Why does the Amazon Valley have such a heavy rainfall? , 

3. Why is the Orinoco River, in general, bordered by grasslands 
rather than forests? 

4. What is asphaltum, where produced and why important? 

5. What are the steps in the production and preparation of rubber 
before it is shipped out of Brazil? 

6. Why does Brazil, although rich in minerals, not do much manu¬ 
facturing ? 

7. Which has the greater possibilities for satisfactory extension in 
Brazil, the coffee or the cattle industry? Why? 

References: 

Atwood, 128-129, 130-133, 136-137; Dodge, 208, 213; Brigham & Mc¬ 
Farlane, 228-231, 239; Smith, 238-239; Smith Human, 354; McMurry 
& Parkins, 252-266. 


220 (70) 


GEOGRAPHY 


The Plata-Parana Lowlands 

Problem: 

Why is the region included within the Plata-Parana Lowlands the 
most progressive part of South America? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Zones of temperature; (2) Favorable rainfall; (3) Rich open 
grass and timberlands; (4) All parts easily accessible; (5) New 
country, unhampered by traditions; (6) Intelligent, ambitious immi¬ 
grants; (7) Easy access to open sea. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why is grazing a leading industry in Argentina? 

2. Why has Buenos Aires become the metropolis of the southern 
hemisphere ? 

3. What effect will the new Trans-Andean railroad have on the 
trade of this region? 

4. Why should the people of this region export wheat to Brazil 
rather than to the United States? 

5. Show how the climate of Argentina is similar to that of United 
States in several different ways. 

References: 

Dodge, 209-211; Brigham & McFarlane, 233-234; Atwood, 148-154; 
Smith, 336-344; Smith Human, 394; McMurry & Parkins, 266-278. 

The Name and Place Geography of South America 

Problem: 

What names and places should I remember in connection with my 
study of South America? 

Study Outline: 

The following list of suggested minimum essentials should be so 
thoroughly learned that it becomes a permanent possession of the 
pupil : 

(1) All the countries and capitals; (2) Three highland regions; 
(3) Three lowland regions; (4) Six rivers; (5) Vegetation regions; 
pampas, campos, llanos, selvas; (6) Cities, all capitals, Para, Manaos, 
Bahia, Sao Paulo, Santos, Pernambuco, Guayaquil, Callao, Valpa¬ 
raiso, Puenta Arenas, Rosario, Mendoza, LaPaz; (7) Equator, Tropic 
.of Capricorn, Torrid Zone, Temperate Zone; (8) Two wet and two 
dry regions; (9) Miscellaneous; Terra Del Fuego, Magellan, Gala- 


GEOGRAPHY 


(71) 221 


pagos, Juan Fernandez, Cotopaxi, Aconcagua, Chimborazo, Titicaca, 
Falkland, St. Roque, Trinidad, Gallinas; (10) Regions for rubber, 
coffee, hides, fertilizer, wheat, cattle, Brazil nuts, tapioca, sugar, 
cacao, asphaltum, corn. 

Elective Work: 

Draw the following maps of South America: Topographic regions 
including rivers; density of population; natural vegetation; eco¬ 
nomic regions; summer and winter rainfall; political divisions in¬ 
cluding capitals and important cities. 


V. THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE 

EUROPE 
Natural Regions 

Problem: 

Why are the people of Europe engaged in such a diversity of occu¬ 
pations and industries? 

Outline of Problem: 


(1) Physiographic Regions: Northwest Highlands, Central Lowlands, 
Southern Highlands and Valleys; (2) Climatic Regions: Norwegian, 
West European, Mediterranean, Central European and Siberian; 
(3) Vegetation regions; (4) Influence of coast and surrounding 
waters; (5) Distribution of minerals; (6) Accessibility of the sea. 

Elective Problems: 


1. Why is the Mediterranean a more important waterway than the 
Baltic ? 

2. Why was a large proportion of sea boundary a great advantage 
in the early development of Europe? 

3. What features of wind, temperature and rainfall characterize 
each of the climatic regions of Europe? 

4. What are the most important waterways of Europe and how have 
they been instrumental in the marvelous development of the con¬ 
tinent ? 

Stereographs: 

Cities—573-604-610-641-649-408. Rivers—576-581-603-613-614. In¬ 
dustries— 579-604-616-217-620-681-682-683. Lakes—702-716. Coast 

Line—595. Travel—699. People—578-706-593-594-600-642. 


222 (72) 


GEOGRAPHY 


References: 

Dryer, High School Geography, 336-339, 428; Atwood, 157-163; Brig¬ 
ham & McFarlane, 261-274; Dodge, 215-224; Lackey, 78, 81, 86, 88; 
Clark, 93-96; Smith Human, 203-210; McMurry & Parkins, 279-288. 

Countries of the Northwestern Highlands 

Problem: 

Why has Great Britain changed from a country of farmers and fish¬ 
ermen to a manufacturing and commercial people? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Influence of position in the land hemisphere; (2) Effects of in¬ 
crease in population; (3) Influence of increase in big estates; (4) 
Effect of insular position; (5) Coal, iron and limestone as factors; 
(6) How damp climate favors textile industry; (7) Influence of 
colonial policy; (8) How fishing industry develops sailors for mer¬ 
chant marine. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why does England possess more colonies than any other nation? 

2. What are the factors upon which the fishing industry of Great 
Britain depends? 

3. Account for the importance of Liverpool, Glasgow, Manchester 
and London. 

4. Why must fishing always remain one of the chief industries of 
Norway? 

5. Why has Sweden made so much industrial progress in recent 
years ? 

6. How do you account for the temperate winter climate in Nor¬ 
way? 

7. What constitutes the basis of the economic life of the Finnish 
people? 

Stereographs: 

Cities—496 to 508-529 to 532-535-537-538-539-540-554-555-556-561. 
People—516-626. Commerce—495-545-560. Rivers—509-510-511-512- 
524-548-552. Coast Line—513-514-515-518-541-542-562-563-564-570. 
Industries—pottery—521-522-527-528-543-544-549-550-551-552; linen 
—557-559-558; special—566-567-568-519-520. Surface—536. Lakes 
553-571. 


GEOGRAPHY 


(73) 223 


References: 


- . i 



ii ^ 

- 3 . J 


l' 


h--, 
ft i 


Atwood, 158 and 164-173; Dodge, 224-232 and 247-251; Brigham & 
McFarlane, 275-285, 296-297, 333; Smith, 251-265 and 390-392; Clark, 
96-99, 108-109; Smith Human, Index; McMurry & Parkins, 289-306, 
344-349. 


Countries of the Central Plains and Highlands 

Problem: 

Why are the people who live in this part of Europe more ambitious 
and progressive than those living in the other regions? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Names of all countries in these regions; (2) Nature of the sur¬ 
face; (3) Summer and winter temperature; (4) Amount and distri¬ 
bution of rainfall; (5) Agricultural opportunities; (6) Mineral re¬ 
sources; (7) Advantages over the Northwest Highlands; (8) Why 
superior to Southern Highlands; (9) Access to world markets; (10) 
The spur of competition. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why is the area of densest population found in this region? 

2. Why are the large cities of Germany on rivers rather than on 
the coast? 

3. Why have several new countries been organized in this region as 
a result of the Great War? 

4. Why is France more of an agricultural than a manufacturing 
nation? 

5. What conditions favor the development of the Russian people 
into an important factor in future world affairs? 

6. What special concessions have been granted to Czecho-Slovakia 
and Poland by the Peace Treaty that will benefit them greatly 
in their development? 

Stereographs: 

France: cities—653 to 660-662-663-665-666-673; industries—652-661- 
668-671; mountains—667; people—669; coast line—670-672. Ger¬ 
many: cities—621-623-625-637-638; rivers and canals—624-633-634- 
635-636; industries—626-627-628-629-630; surface—631-632. 

References: 

Atwood, 175-197; McMurry & Parkins, Index; Brigham & McFar¬ 
lane, 287-295, 298-306, 322, 329; Dodge, 233-238, 251-261; Smith, 


224 (74) 


GEOGRAPHY 


366, 374, 386, 393, 398; Clark, 99-103, 105-108; Smith Human, In¬ 
dex. 


Countries of the Southern Mountains and Plateaus 

Problem: 

How are the people of southern Europe using natural conditions to 
good advantage in serving themselves and the rest of the world? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Countries included in this region; (2) Names of important moun¬ 
tains and valleys; (3) Plateau areas; (4) Nature of the climate, i. e., 
the seasonal distribution of temperature and rainfall; (5) Belts of 
winds at different times of the year; (6) Location and use of mineral 
resources; (7) Valuable natural and cultivated vegetation; (8) Use 
of the streams for power and irrigation; (9) Value and use of water¬ 
ways; (10) Scenery and antiquities as a resource; (11) Location and 
importance of manufactured products. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why are the Italians essentially an agricultural people? 

2. What geographical factors contributed to the early splendor of 
Roman civilization? 

3. Since Spain is so favorably located, why is she not a commercial 
nation? 

4. What goegraphical conditions determine quite largely the indus¬ 
trial activity of the Swiss? 

5. How came the Hungarians to occupy the vast fertile lowlands of 
the Danube? 

6. What conditions have been responsible for the economic, political 
and religious turmoil in the Balkan region? 

References: 

McMurry & Parkins, 359-382; Atwood, 203-215; Smith, 405-417; 
Brigham & McFarlane, 307, 311-320, 324; Dodge, 239, 262, 264, 271; 
Clark, 103-106; Smith Human, Index. 


The New Map of Europe 

Problem: 

What new boundaries and what new nations have resulted from the 
Great War and the work of the Peace Conference? 


GEOGRAPHY 


(75) 225 


Outline of Problem: 

(1) How the boundary of France has been affected; (2) What Ger- 
many as lost and to whom; (3) Countries occupying the site of the 
old Russian Empire; (4) How Austria-Hungary has been partitioned; 
5) Rearrangement m the Balkan region; (6) How Italy has gained; 
/) Areas m which nationality is to be determined by a plebiscite; 
(8) Areas under control of the League of Nations. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why were so many new nations created in Europe as a result of 
the war? 


2. On an outline map of Europe delineate and color all the countries 
of Europe, numbering each and neatly printing their names on 
the margin of the map. 

3. Why were Czecho-Slovakia and Jugo-Slavia made up of peoples 
from several pre-war nations ? 

4. Why was the boundary of France moved over to the Rhine ? 


Ihe Name and Place Geography of Europe 

Problem: 

What is the least number of names and places that I should know 
as a result of my study of Europe? 

Suggested Minimum Essentials: 

(1) Name and location of countries and their capitals; (2) Six moun¬ 
tain groups; (3) Four mountain peaks and volcanoes; (4) Eight seas; 
(5) Straits of Dover, Gibralter, Bosphorus, Dardanelles; (6) Gulf of 
Finland, English Channel, Bay of Biscay; (7) Four peninsulas; (8) 
Six islands and island groups; (9) Rivers: Rhine, Rhone, Danube, Po, 
Meuse, Marne, Thames, Volga, Elbe, Seine, Loire, Dneiper, Tiber, 
Clyde, Vistula; (10) Name and locate region of production of chief 
manufactured and agricultural products; (11) Cities: capitals and 
Liverpool, Dublin, Glascow, Birmingham, Edinburgh, Paris, Havre, 
Brest, Bordeaux, Marseilles, Lyon, Venice, Naples, Genoa, Florence, 
Moscow, Hamburg, Odessa, Amsterdam, Geneva. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Be able to locate all of the above places on* an unlettered ma<p of 
Europe. 

2. What other places do you consider of sufficient importance to be 
added to our list of minimum essentials? 

3. Be able to draw a free-hand map of Europe on the blackboard, 
sketching in the chief coastal features, rivers and mountains. 


226 (76) 


GEOGRAPHY 


AFRICA 

Natural Regions of Africa 
(Optional) 

Problem: 

What conditions have delayed the development of Africa into an im¬ 
portant continent ? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Distribution of lowlands, plateaus and mountains; (2) Narrow 
coastal plain; (3) Nature of coast line; (4) Influence of latitude; 
(5) Climatic controls; (6) Obstructions in streams; (7) Character 
of natives of continent; (8) Cause of decline of early civilization in 
Nile valley; (9) Contrast with development of North America. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why is Africa called the “Dark Continent”? 

2. Explain why southern Africa is being developed more rapidb* 
than the central or northern parts. 

3. How do you account for the Great Sahara Desert in northern 
Africa ? 

References: 

Atwood, 217-222; Brigham & McFarlane, 369-377; McMurry & Par¬ 
kins, 447-465; Smith, 428, 478-490; Dodge, 275-278; Lackey, 71, 74, 
78, 83; Smith Human, 286-287. 

Commercial and Place Geography of Africa 

Problem: 

Why has the entrance of the great commercial nations of Europe into 
Africa resulted in considerable economic and social progress ? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Parts of Africa owned or controlled by each; (2) How mother 
countries have improved conditions in the colonies; (3) Value of 
colonies to the owner; (4) Illustrations of how industrial conditions 
have been changed, i. e., in mining, trade relations, stock farming 
and agriculture in general; (5) Improvement of living conditions 
among the natives. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why did the nations of Europe seize and colonize large areas in 
Africa ? 


GEOGRAPHY 


(77) 227 


2. Concerning Africa learn thoroughly the following: Natural re¬ 
gions; bordering waters; four large rivers; location of one wet 
and two dry regions; areas under control of different European 
countries; cities of Cairo, Alexandria, Cape Town, Khartum, Jo¬ 
hannesburg, and Kimberly; regions of gold, dates, rubber, dia¬ 
monds, coffee, ivory; neighboring islands; several large lakes; 
vegetation zones; principal wild animals. 

Stereographs: 

Cities — 786-787-800-806-809-815-822-823-829-839-807-808; desert — 
788-792-796-841-789-790-791; rivers — 798-801-802-803-804-814-818- 
821-824; animals—810-813-819-820-827-831; people—811-812-816-826- 
838; diamond mines—833-834. 

References: 

Brigham & McFarlane, 374-383; McMurry & Parkins, 447-465; At¬ 
wood, 223-229; Smith, 478-483; Dodge, 280-287; Smith Human, 284- 
287, 350-374. 


Problem: 


ASIA 

Natural Regions of Asia 
(Optional) 


Why does Asia have such a great variety of climate? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) The three or four important elements of climate; (2) Influence of 
differences in latitude; (3)‘ Influence of differences in elevation; 
(4) Differences in wind directions as a factor; (5) Distances from 
the sea and its influence; (6) Cause of the great dry plateaus and 
lowlands; (7) Regions of heavy rainfall. 


Elective Problems: 

1. Contrast Asia with North America in position and trend of low¬ 
lands, plateaus and mountains. 

2. Compare Canada with Siberia in climate, production and future 
prospects. 

3. What and where are the chief plains, plateaus and mountain 
ranges of Asia? 

References: 

Brigham & McFarlane, 335-345; McMurry & Parkins, 383-387; At¬ 
wood, 231-235; Dodge, 289-294; Lackey, 71, 73, 79, 83, 85; Smith 

Human, 304-308. 


228 (78) 


GEOGRAPHY 


Geography of Southern Countries 

Problem: 

« 

Why do they frequently have such terrible famines in India ? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Density of population; (2) Chief occupation of people; (3) Chief 
food crops; (4) How rainfall comes to India; (5) Effect of failure of 
the summer monsoons to bring rain; (6) Transportation facilities in 
India; (7) Possibilities of importing sufficient food materials for so 
many people. 

Elective Problems: 

1. How has Great Britain been able to gain and keep control of 
India ? 

2. Why is irrigation so important in India? 

3. How has Brahmanism been a serious obstacle to the progressive 

development of India? 

« 

4. Account for the importance of Calcutta, Rangoon and Bombay. 

5. What important readjustments are taking place in southwestern 
Asia? 

Stereographs: 

India—cities 883-892-895-898-899-900-906; people 884-886-893-894- 
903-904-912-916-918-920-919; industries 887; transportation 888-902- 
905-908-911; animals 896-907; Holy lands (appropriate significant 
stereographs). 

References: 

Atwood, 235, 249, 252; Dodge, 299-309; McMurry & Parkins, 388-396, 
401-407, 426-427; Smith, 436, 460; Brigham & McFarlane, 345-355; 
Smith Human, 334-341. 


Countries of Eastern Asia 

Problem: 

Why does Japan seek unlimited rights for her people to emigrate to 
other countries? 

% 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Size of the country; (2) Density of population; (3) Proportion of 
farm land; (4) Mineral resources; (5) Japanese aggressiveness; 
<6) Rate of increase in population; (7) Principal industries in Japan; 
(8) A high spirited, proud people. 


GEOGRAPHY 


(79) 229 


Elective Problems: 

» 

1. Why is Japan sometimes called “The England of the Orient”? 

2. Why are there so few domesticated animals in Japan? 

3. Why is China, a very old nation, so new to us ? 

4. Why are canals plentiful and railroads few in China? 

5. Why haven’t the Chinese learned to use their mineral resources 
more extensively? 

6. Why is a large proportion of the Chinese population concen¬ 
trated on a small proportion of their land? 

7. Explain the importance of Yokohama, Tokyo, Peking, Shanghai, 
Canton, Hongkong. 

Stereographs: 

China—cities 927-928-930-933-939-940; commerce 936-935-938-945- 
946; people 943; historical 944. 

Japan—cities 954-961; customs 962-963-965-967-981; industries 968- 
969-971-972-975-973-974; commerce 978-979. 

References: 

Atwood, 242-249; Tarr & McMurry, 361-370; Smith, 441-459; Dodge, 
309-315; Brigham & McFarlane, 357-366; Smith Human, 318-332; 
McMurry & Parkins, 409-426. 

Geography of Northern Asia 

Problem: 

What natural conditions combine to make Siberia a land of great 
opportunities ? 

Outline of Problem: 

(1) Size of the country; (2) Kind of topography; (3) Nature of the 
soil; (4) Distribution and amount of rainfall; (5) Crops that thrive 
there; (6) Relation to great markets; (7) Possibilities for power 
and railway development; (8) Temperate zone; (9) Direction of 
streams unfortunate; (10) Governmental handicaps. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why did Russia build the Trans-Siberian railroad? 

2. Why do the interests of Russia and Japan clash in eastern Si¬ 
beria ? 

3. What are the prospects in Siberia for an extensive lumbering in¬ 
dustry? 


230 (80) 


GEOGRAPHY 


References: , 

McMurry & Parkins, 397-400; Atwood, 240-241; Smith, 398-404; 
Brig-ham & McFarlane, 366-367; Dodge, 295-297; Smith Human,308- 
312. 

The Name and Place Geography of Asia 

Problem: 

Why is it important that the following names and places be remem¬ 
bered in connection with my study of Asia ? 

Suggested Minimum Essentials: 

(1) Surrounding waters: Bay of Bengal, Arabian, Persian, Red, Cas¬ 
pian, Okhotsk, Japan, Yellow, East China, South China, Bering, 
Aden; (2) Straits: Malacca, Babel-Mandeb; (3) Rivers: Ob, Yenisei, 
Euphrates, Ganges, Indus, Tigris, Yangtze, Hoangho, Amur, Lena; 

(4) Mountains: Himalaya, Elbruz, Caucasus, Hindu Kush, Altai; 

(5) Plateaus: Deccan, Tibet, Arabian, Iran, Turkestan, Mongolia; 

(6) Islands: East Indies, Philippines, Ceylon, Japanese; (7) Penin¬ 
sulas: Chosen, Malay, Kamchatka; (8) Chief countries and capitals; 
(9) Cities: Calcutta, Bankok, Yokohama, Jerusalem, Kokhara, Bom¬ 
bay, Colombo, Lassa, Canton, Peking, Seoul, Tokyo, Nagasaka, Vladi¬ 
vostok, Port Arthur, Hongkong, Omsk, Bagdad. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Be able to locate all of the above named places on an unlettered 
map of Asia. 

2. Work to be able to draw a free-hand sketch of Asia on the black¬ 
board showing the chief coastal features, rivers and mountains. 

3. Fill in the following outline maps of Asia: Summer and Winter 
rainfall; Density of population; Natural vegetation; Topography 
including rivers and lakes. 


GEOGRAPHY 


(81) 231 


AUSTRALIA 

Australia and Pacific Islands 


Problem: 

Why is grazing such an important industry in Australia? 

Outline of Problem: 


(1) Topographic regions; (2) Belts of winds and calms; (3) Seasonal 
and areal distribution of rainfall; (4) Grasslands suitable for cattle; 
(5) Grasslands also suitable for sheqp; (6) Encouragement from 
mother country; (7) How the newness of the country is a factor; 
(8) Possibilities of future extension of grazing business; (9) Types 
of sheep and cattle best adapted. 

Elective Problems: 

1. Why does most of the rainfall come to the south coast in the 
winter and to the north coast in the summer? 

2. Account for the heavy rainfall on the eastern and southeastern 
coasts. 

3. Why are most of the hides, wool and meat of Australia exported ? 

4. Why is central Australia so dry? 

5. Why is dairying so important in Victoria and New South Wales? 

6. Why does New Zealand have most rainfall on the west while 
Australia has most on the east and north coasts ? 


7. What interesting experiments in government are being tried out 
in Australia and New Zealand? 


Stereographs: 

Cities 982-983-989; animals 984; industries 985-986-988-991-992; peo¬ 
ple 990-993-997. 

References: 


Atwood, 257-264; Dodge, 317-326; Brigham and McFarlane, 385-391; 
Smith, 491-500; Smith Human, 414-430; McMurry & Parkins, 437- 
446; Lackey, 76-79, 80-83. 


The Name and Place Geography of Australia and Pacific Islands 
Problem: 

What names and places are worth while learning in connection with 
a study of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Island groups? 


232 (82) 


GEOGRAPHY 


Suggested Minimum Essentials: 

(1) Surrounding waters: Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Gulf of Carpen¬ 
taria, Bass Strait, Great Australian Bight; (2) Islands: Java, Borneo, 
New Guinea, Tasmania, North Island, South Island, Fiji, New Cala- 
donia, Moluccas; (3) Five important exports; (4) Rivers: Murray, 
Darling; (5) Important provinces of Australia; (6) Cities: Mel¬ 
bourne, Sidney, Batavia, Adelaide, Wellington. 

Elective Problems: 

1. How came Great Britain to own Australia and so many of the 
Pacific islands ? 

2. Of what value are Dutch East Indies to the owner? 

3. What small island groups in the Pacific belong to United States ? 


BOOKS NAMED IN THE REFERENCE LISTS 
Books on Teaching Geography 

fBranom, The Teaching of Geography—Ginn & Co. 
fDodge & Kirchway, The Teaching of Geography—Rand McNally & 
Co. 

fHoltz, Principles and Methods of the Teaching of Geography—The 
Macmillan Co. 

fSutherland, The Teaching of Geography—Scott, Foresman & Co. 
Earhart, Types of Teaching—Houghton Mifflin Co. 

Branom, The Project Method in Education—Richard Badger. 
Monroe, Measuring the Results of Teaching—Houghton Mifflin Co. 


Text Books 

JMcMurry & Parkins, Advanced Geography—The Macmillan Co. 
$Frye-Atwood, New Geographies, Two Book Series—Ginn & Co. 
JBrigham & McFarlane, Essentials of Geography, Two Books— 
American Book Co . 

$Dodge, Geographies, Two Book Series—Rand McNally & Co. 
jfDryer, High School Geography—American Book Co. 
ifSmith, Commerce and Industry—Henry Holt & Co. 

Smith, Human Geography—John C. Winston Co., Chicago. 
§Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, Elements of Geography—Henry Holt & 
Co. 

§Lackey, Studies in the Principles of Geography—Rand McNally & 
Co. 

Whitbeck, High School Geography—The Macmillan Co., Chicago. 


GEOGRAPHY 


(83) 233 


Other Reference Books 

§Clark, Geography for the Grades—Penn. State Teachers’ College. 
Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, Elements of Geography—Henry Holt & 
Co. 

§ Sutherland & Sanford, Practical Exercises in Geography—Silver 
Burdette Co. 

Salisbury, Physiography, Briefer Course—Henry Holt & Co. 
Arey-Bryant-Clendenin-Morey, Physiography—D. C. Heath & Co. 
Robinson, Commercial Geography—Rand McNally & Co. 

Dryer, Economic Geography—American Book Co. 

Johnson, Mathematical Geography—American Book Co. 

Mill, The International Geography—The Macmillan Co. 

Ridgley, Vegetation Zones of the Earth—McKnight & McKnight. 
Ridgley & Eyestone, Home Geography—McKnight & McKnight. 
Frye, Home Geography—Ginn & Co. 

Fairbanks, Home Geography—Educational Publishing Co. 

Carpenter, Around the World with the Children—American Book Co. 
Carpenter, Geographical Readers, The Continents—American Book 
Co. 

Hotchkiss, Representative Cities of the United States—Houghton 
Mifflin Co. 

Semple, Influence of Geographical Environment—Henry Holt & Co. 
Semple, American History and its Geographical Conditions—Hough¬ 
ton Mifflin Co. 

Milham, Meteorology—The Macmillan Co. 

Herbertson, Man and His Work—A. & C. Black. 

Bartholomew, A School Economic Atlas—Rand McNally & Co. 
Goode, School Atlas—Rand McNally & Co. 

Bowan, The New World—World Book Co., Chicago. 


Visual Geography References 

Pictorial Geography, The National Geographic Society, Washington, 
D. C. 

Stereographs: 

Keystone View Company, 809 No. 19 Street, Philadelphia. 


♦Valuable 
tBooks on 
^Standard 


optional references. 

Teaching of Geography that should be available to the class. 
Elementary School Texts, each of which should be equally represented m 


iJBooks of High School Grade on which the major part of the "principles” in the 
course is based. Enough in class for constant refeience. 

§One or more copies in library for reference. 














GRAMMAR 

By Sarah Ryan, Formerly Supt., St. Edward 
Alberta B. Anderson, Normal Training Teacher, Lincoln 
In collaboration with the Editor 







9 



\ 


236 (86) 


GRAMMAR 


Grammar 

Dr. Charters in his ‘Teaching the Common Branches” makes this 
statement: “The difference between the object of teaching language and 
that of teaching grammar is this: In language we teach correct gram¬ 
matical forms, and in grammar we explain why they are correct”. The 
teacher should not only know the correct forms of language, but he 
should know why those forms are correct. In other words the teacher 
should have a good working knowledge of the principles and rules of 
grammar. 

The aims of this course are: 

1. To lead the student to such a mastery of the essentials of Eng¬ 
lish grammar as will enable him immediately to classify the ele¬ 
ments of speech he hears and of language he reads. 

2. To show the student what and how grammar contributes to com¬ 
position. 

3. To furnish the prospective teacher with such a body of technical 
professional knowledge as will enable him to teach grammar as 
a “functioning” subject. 

Use of Standard Tests 

The standard tests prescribed in this course have the following 
purposes: 

1. To disclose abilities of members of class in subject matter. 

2. As a means of diagnosing weaknesses of previous learning. 

3. As a basis for remedial instruction to correct faults of previous 
learning and to develop specific abilities. 

4. To indicate individual differences in ability or attainment. 

5. As a point of departure in conducting the class instruction. 

These tests are to be given in the manner prescribed and at the time 
prescribed. They are to be given before the class enters upon the study 
of the subject tested or they are valueless for the purposes here used. 

Report the results of these tests to this Department. We will com¬ 
pile and consolidate the results and report our results to normal train¬ 
ing high schools as a tentative norm for normal training classes. 

Suggested Lesson Distribution 

Good Form—One week. 

Common Errors and Their Correction—One Week. 


GRAMMAR 


(87) 237 


The Sentence—Two weeks. 

Parts of Speech—Preliminary Survey and Substantives—Two weeks. 
Parts of Speech—Verb Forms—Two weeks. 

Parts of Speech—Adjectives and Adverbs—One week. 

Parts of Speech—Prepositions and Conjunctions—One week. 
Summary and Review—Two weeks. 


Problem: 


GOOD FORM 

Punctuation, Capitalization, Etc. 


“Form in writing deals with the mechanical features . . .” “By 
good form, we mean the proper way of doing anything. The proper 
way of doing things is decided by the majority of educated people.”* 

Our problem is 

“What constitutes good form in writing?” 


To the Normal Training Instructor: 

As preliminary to the work on punctuation, give to the normal train¬ 
ing class, Starch’s Punctuation Scale A (for pupils in grades five to- 
twelve). Follow exactly the directions for giving the test. Exchange 
papers. Score the tests and record the scores, according to “Directions 
for Scoring” and “Directions for Recording Scores”, as a class exercise. 
How does the median for this class compare with Starch’s Standards 
(June scores) ? What items in following outline need emphasis in this 
class? What individual weaknesses are shown? 


Outline of Problem: 

Paragraphing—Margins—Indentation—Letter Forms—Social Forms 
—Telegrams—Capitalization—Punctuation (Period; comma; semi-co¬ 
lon; colon; exclamation point; interrogation point; hyphen; dash; 
apostrophe; quotation marks)—Abbreviations—Contractions. 

Related Problems: 

1. How may copying and dictation aid in establishing good form? 

2. How may improvement in form be measured? 

3. What is the function of the mechanics of composition ? 

4. Compare Sheridan with Mahoney as to technicalities and me¬ 
chanics of composition taught in each grade. 

5. Find how and in what grades the mechanics of composition are 
taught in the language books in use in the grades in your school. 
Would you do it the same way? 


*See Bolenius—Everyday English Composition. 



238 (88) 


GRAMMAR 


6. Compare the results obtained from problem four with the re¬ 
sults obtained from problem five. 

7. Write a business letter, a social letter, a telegram, an acceptance 
of a formal invitation. 

8. Survey high school books in composition for subject matter of 
mechanics of composition. 

Special Readings: 

Mahoney—Standards in English, appropriate topics on pages 41 to 
153. 

Sheridan—Appropriate topics on pages 51 to 145. 

Klapper—The Teaching of English, pages 31 to 35. 

COMMON ERRORS AND THEIR CORRECTION 

Problem: 

One of the functions of grammar is to eliminate common errors in 
language. In this chapter we are 

“To determine what the common errors are and how to correct 
them”. 

Outline of Problem: 

“Superintendent C. S. Meek directed a study of oral errors in the 
Boise schools. The teachers collected and listed the errors heard 
in the school room, in recitation and on the playground. 

‘The lists of this first report were collated and classified. When 
classified, the fact which stood out most clearly was that the multi¬ 
tudinous errors in speech are due to the frequent repetition of a few 
incorrect forms. Practically all the errors reported could be classi¬ 
fied under six heads: namely, verb errors, double negative, mispro¬ 
nunciations, misuse of pronouns, adverb errors and colloquialisms. 
Mispronunciations in this classification include those which may 
properly be called language errors, as jist for just, git for get, ketch 
for catch, and others of like nature and do not include mispronun¬ 
ciations due to unfamiliarity with a word. In this effort there was no 
attempt to deal with the fine points, the niceties of speech. 

Only the gross and glaring crudities of English were considered. 

In detail, this classification was as follows: 

1. Verbs: 

a. Past and perfect participle confused. 

b. Misuse of had and got; use of ain’t. 

c. Agreement with subject in number; e. g., He don’t. 


GRAMMAR 


(89) 239 


d. Sequence of tenses. * ‘ 

e. Uses of shall and will. 

f. Use of and with infinitive; e. g., try and go. 

2. Double negatives. 

3. Pronunciations—Just, get, final g, for, asked, February, height. 

4. Pronouns: 

a. Case forms: 

(1) In compound subject. 

(2) Object of preposition or verb. 

(3) After copula. 

(4) In compounds; e. g., John he did the work. 

b. Pronoun used for adjective; e. g., them books. 

c. In double subjects; e. g., John he did the work. 

d. Indefinite reference. 

5. Adverbs: 

a. Use of adjective for adverb. 

b. This here, that there, etc. 

6. Colloquialisms, provincialisms: 

Lots for many or much; mad for angry; learn for teach; get 

with infinitive, as, get to go; like as a conjunction, as, He felt 

like he could do it; introductory well, why, now, so. 

This outline was given to the teachers and they were asked to watch 
for errors on these points for a given time and report again. This sec¬ 
ond report specified the errors noted under each head of the outline and 
recorded also the comparative frequency of occurrence. When these re¬ 
ports were collected and tabulated, it was possible to tell what our situ¬ 
ation was. As yet, no scientific exactness can be claimed for the results 
obtained in this way. Though there was not scientific accuracy in ob¬ 
taining the data, there is such uniformity of results in the reports as to 
justify certain conclusions. 

Classification of Errors (after Meek) 


Grades 

12345678 All 

1. Verbs .49.5 48.1 32.8 34.0 40.9 43.7 37.0 36.6 40.1 

2. Double negatives.... 3.6 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.7 3.3 3.2 2.9 3.4 

3. Pronunciation.16.0 18.1 21.8 22.5 16.6 21.6 24.7 17.3 20.4 

4. Pronouns .18.8 17.1 16.8 17.2 19.3 14.9 14.9 18.3 17.2 

5. Adverbs . 5.5 4.7 5.8 6.1 6.4 5.2 5.8 6.9 5.8 


6. Colloquialisms, etc. 8.2 9.0 14.9 14.8 12.9 11.5 12.3 18.3 12.9 

Table 3 shows the percentages of errors in each grade that are due 
to each of the six classes of mistakes. Of the total errors reported from 
the eight grades 40.1 per cent are verb errors, 3.4 per cent are double 
negatives; mispronunciations cause 20.4 per cent, the misuse of pro- 







240 (90) 


GRAMMAR 


nouns 17.2 per cent, adverb errors 5.8 per cent, and colloquialisms 12.9 
per cent. According to these totals, over sixty per cent of the errors are 
due to misuse of verbs and mispronunciations’.”* 

*Special Report of Boise Public Schools—Quoted here from Sixteenth 
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. 

Suggestive List of Common Errors 

The most concrete and practical suggestions available for the elimi¬ 
nation of errors in composition are found in the course of study in English 
for the Omaha public shools, pages 16-20. The outline is here printed 
with the permission of Superintendent Beveridge: 

“2-1 Elimination of errors 

1-2 In use of English. 

1- 3 Sixty-two of the most glaring errors of speech have been listed 

and the responsibility fqr the elimination of these definitely 
placed. The incorrect forms are listed for the teacher’s use and 
the correct forms should be kept before the pupils and used in 
the daily drills. The children should be made aware of their 
errors in such a way as to impress the correct form upon their 
seeing, hearing, and speaking consciousness. Correct habits of 
speech can be secured only through the daily class room, play¬ 
ground, and home practice. The greatest skill is required to 
keep the correct form constantly before the children, and yet not 
destroy their spontaneity and free natural expression. While 
the minimum requirement consists of three or four correct forms 
to be insisted upon in each class, it is expected that the teacher, 
in her drills, will cover many forms of the same error. She 
will hold her class responsible for the correct forms listed for 
all classes preceding hers. The eighth grade should know and 
use all the correct forms listed. 

2- 3 Errors listed: 

Watch Your Speech 

Correct: Incorrect: 

Kindergarten 

It (is) I Me 

(was) 

John and I went (Me and John 

(John and me 

Correct: Incorrect: 

He) 

She) saw it seen 

I) 

We) 

They) did it 
The boy) 


done 


GRAMMAR 


Correct: 

He) 

She) came to school 
I) this morning 
We) 

They) ran 
The boys) 

He) 

She) isn’t 
The boy) 

I am not 
We) aren’t 
They) 

He and I came 
Has the bell rung? 

I have no pencil 
I haven’t any pencil) 

I brought it 


My father did it 
He) 

I) knew 
She) 

We) 

They) ate 
The boys) 

My pencil is broken 
He) 

She) has gone 
(John) 

(Mary) 

They) have gone 
We) were 
They) 


Grade I 

Incorrect: 

come 


run 

aint 

aint 

aint 

Me and him 
rang 

Double negative 
and unnecessary 
use of “got” 
brung 

Grade II 

My father, he 

knowed 

et 

broke 
has went 

# 

have went 
was 


Grade III 

There was a fire They was 

He) 

She) doesn’t don’t 

It) 

My book is torn 
Those books are yours 


tore 

them 


242 (92)- 


GRAMMAR 


Correct: 

I began it last week 
You can’t do that 


Let him go 
They let him go 
He didn’t give him a pen 
Come quickly 
Here is (yours 
(his 
(hers 

May I get a pen? 

Those are mine 

May I take this book home? 


We (boys) were there 
(girls) 

It is (he 
(she 
(they 
(we 

(I 

I left my books at home 
The pipe) 

tire) burst 

There (are) eight boys 
(were) 

My sister taught me 
That picture 
This book 
We drew a picture 

He took it from me 
Do as I do 
This kind 
That kind 

We sang “America” 

Where is he ? 

Where shall I bring it? 

He sits back of me 

He ought not to go 
They are wrong themselves 
He is wrong himself 


Incorrect: 

begun 

Yous 

Grade IV 
Leave 
left 

never gave 

quick 

yourn 

hisn 

hern 

can 

them are mine 
bring 

Grade V 
us 

him 

her 

them 

us 

me , 

to 

busted 

is 

was 
learned 
that there 
this here 
drawed 

Grade VI 
off 
like 
these 
those 
sung 

Where is he at? 

Where shall I bring it to 
He sits in back of me 

hadn’t ought 

theirselves 

hisself 


GRAMMAR 


GRAMMAR (^; (2 41 

Grade VII 

Correct: 

Incorrect: 

I (wrote my lesson 

have wrote 

(have written 

He’ll meet you and me 

I 

Give it to us boys 

we 

Who is going, you or I? 

me 

He can write better than I 

me 

* * 

****** 

I wish I were going 

was 

This is different from yours 

than 

Grade VIII 

I hardly agree with you 

I don’t hardly agree with you 

Divide it among the five boys 

between 

Divide it between the two boys 

among 

Each did his best 

their 

Neither of the boys is here 

are 

From whom did this come? 

who did this come from? 

She is lying down 

laying 

I heard of your leaving 

you 

To whom are you speaking? 

who are you speaking to? 

2-2 In Pronunciation and 

Articulation. 

In addition to the sixty-two errors in usage, fourteen phrases 

commonly incorrectly 

enunciated are listed to be frequently 

drilled upon in all grades. 

1-3 Fourteen Errors in Enunciation. 

2-3 Drill and Devices. 

Correct form: 

Error: 

Give me the ball 

Gimme 

Let me play 

Lemme 

I don’t know 

I dunno 

Can’t you? 

Can’t chew? 

Look here 

Looky here, or lookit here 

Give them to me 

Em 

I can get it 

I c’n git it 

Catch them 

ketch em 

Would you ? 

wouldja ? 

Could you ? 

couldja ? 

And 

And-a 

Used to 

uster 

Don’t you see? 

don’t cher see? 

Eliminate Why a 

whya 


1-4 In every class at least five minutes a day should be devoted to 
Correct Speech Drill, and the teacher should plan thoughtfully 
to make these drills function. Flash cards might be made and 


244 (94) 


GRAMMAR 


used. Charts and bulletin boards could be utilized. At inter¬ 
vals a “Better English” week for the entire school might be ob¬ 
served and team work encouraged. “Good English” badges 
might be worn. Many games or devices which will make possi¬ 
ble numerous repetitions of correct forms are valuable. The 
aims in the drills and corrections are: first, to cause the children 
to discriminate between correct and incorrect forms; and sec¬ 
ond, to help them to form the habit of correct speech through 
daily usage. While pupils should be alert to correct errors in 
a positive, courteous way in general, a child should not be inter¬ 
rupted to receive correction. For example—In making a cor¬ 
rection, say, “John should have said, ‘He saw the boy’,” always 
keeping the correct form before the child. One row might be 
appointed critics for a period a day, or a week. There might 
be “Tag Days” for errors. Each child might keep his own list of 
errors and endeavor to improve his own record. Each teacher 
should know what errors are most frequently made in her group. 
If the emphasis can be placed upon the achievement, rather 
than upon the failure, the drills, games, and devices will be more 
likely to function upon the playground and at home. It is sug¬ 
gested that three of the five-minute periods each week be de¬ 
voted to drills for correct usage, and two be given to drills in 
correct enunciation. 

3-3 Bibliography 

1- 4 Deming’s Language Games 

2- 4 Language Game Cards 

3- 4 Popular Educator, ‘Campaign for Better English’.” 

Related Problems: 

1. Compare Mahoney with Omaha course of study as to errors to 
be eliminated. 

2. List errors in speech heard during the week. What are the cor¬ 
rect forms? 

3. List errors made in test at beginning of course. 

4. What percentage of errors in each (projects 2 and 3) were ‘gram¬ 
matical’; mistakes in articulation, enunciation, pronunciation, me¬ 
chanics of composition. 

Special Reading: 

Klapper—The Teaching of English, page 248. 

Driggs—Our Living Language, pages 99 to 128. 

Mahoney—Standards in English, pages 12 to 15; appropriate topics, 

pages 41 to 156; pages 182 to 189. 

Sheridan—Speaking and Writing English, appropriate topics, pages 

51 to 145; pages 147 to 160. 


GRAMMAR 


(95) 245 


THE SENTENCE 

Problem: 

“In an analytical language like English, the importance of the sen¬ 
tence to the meaning of the word can hardly be exaggerated. The 
sentence as the unit of thought is the unit in any scientific study of 
such a language.” In view of this it seems that our problem is 
“How ‘to develop the sentence feeling, the grasp of essential ele¬ 
ments, the recognition of subject and predicate, and the predication or 
assertion as such’.”* 

I’o the Normal Training Instructor: 

At this point in the course (before further study) give the normal 
training class the Kirby Grammar Test, Form I, to determine their 
grammar abilities. Follow directions for giving implicitly. Score 
the papers, using Form I, Tabulating Set. Record the scores on 
Form I, Class Record Sheet. Send duplicate of record to this office. 
What weaknesses in grammar are disclosed ? In what section of 
the test is each pupil strongest? What remedial instruction is need¬ 
ed to correct previous learning of individuals in the class? Use the 
diagnosis made from the results of this test to aid in teaching the 
rest of the course. 

Outline of Problem: 

Rhetorical—Sentences as Unit of Expression—“Sentence Sense”— 
Epigrams—Loose, periodic, balanced—Topic—Elliptical—Natural 
Order, Inverted (transposed) Order—Direct and Indirect Discourse— 
jr orce —Unity—Clearness—Euphony—Variety—Punctuation— Idioms 
—Slang. 

Structure or Form—Determined by (Kind of thought conveyed; need 
of variety in discourse)—Simple—Complex—Compound—Complex- 
Compound—Affirmative or Negative. 

Purpose or Meaning—(1) Declarative—(2) Interrogative—(3) Im¬ 
perative—(4) The Foregoing (1), (2), or (3) may be Exclamatory. 
Elements —(A) Subject; (1) Simple (subject substantive), (2) Com¬ 
plete, (3) Compound—(B) Predicate (1) Simple (predicate verb), 
(2) Complete, (3) Compound—(C) Independent—(D) Base. 
Incidental—Substantive—Modifier— Complement — Phrase — Clause 
(Principal; subordinate; co-ordinate)—Construction—Analysis—Dia¬ 
gramming—Syntax. 

Related Problems: 

1. What shall determine the kind of modifiers of subject and predi¬ 
cate ? 

__C___ : _. 

*See Rapeer—How to Teach Elementary School Subjects, Scribners. 







246 (96) 


GRAMMAR 


2. How shall monotony of sentence structure be avoided ? 

3. What shall determine the kind of punctuation used in the sen¬ 
tence ? 

4. How shall errors in sentence structure be eliminated, i. e., omis¬ 
sion of subject, wrong position of modifiers, sentence unity, series 
of short choppy sentences, involved sentences, loosely connected 
sentences ? 

5. Study selected paragraphs from standard literature to determine 
the kind of sentences used. How does the author secure unity in 
sentence structure and in the paragraph? How does the num¬ 
ber of simple sentences compare with the number of compound 
sentences; with the number of complex sentences? 

6. Compare paragraphs selected from different writers to determine 
how they secure variety. Does the thought move forward equally 
in each case? 

7. Study the means used to subordinate the dependent elements in 
complex sentences in selected paragraphs. 

8. Write short paragraphs on subjects vital to the school life to 
prove your knowledge of sentence structure. (Our Last Big 
Game, Just Why We Lost the Game, Our Senior Picnic, Should 
We have the Honor System, Why Should Students Participate 
in the Government of The School ?) 

9. Compare your paragraph with the ones studied to determine how 
well your thought moves forward. Do you have unity? 

See Klapper—Teaching of English, p. 81. 

10. Make a lesson plan developing the complex sentence for the 
seventh grade. 

11. Make a summary of the sentence in outline form. 

12. Special Reading: Driggs—Our Living Language, 136-140; 193- 
203. 


PARTS OF SPEECH 
Preliminary Survey 

Problem: 

Essentially there are but five parts to be performed by words or 
groups of words in sentence building. They may act as substantives, 
as assertives, as modifiers, as connectives, or they may be used as in¬ 
dependent elements to cast different shades of feeling over the sen¬ 
tence as a whole. These essential uses the pupil must be trained to 
recognize and to feel if he is to get a practical understanding of the 
parts of speech. Our problem, then, is 


♦See Driggs—Live Language Lessons, page 279. 



GRAMMAR 


(97) 247 


“How to recognize and feel the essential uses of words as parts of 
speech”. 

Outline of Problem: 

Preliminary Survey—Eight Parts of Speech (Noun; pronoun; verb; 
adjective; adverb; conjunction; preposition; interjection)—Other 
Word Elements (Gerund; participle; infinitive; expletive)—Groups of 
Words as Parts of Speech (Phrases; clauses). 

Related Problems: 

1. What constitutes a good definition ? 

2. The parts of speech may be grouped as follows:* 

(1) Substantives. 

(2) Asserting elements. 

(3) Modifying elements. 

(4) Connecting elements. 

(5) Independent elements. 

Or as follows :f 

(1) The naming part. 

(2) The asserting part. 

(3) The substituting part. 

(4) The describing part. 

(5) The joining part. 

(6) The exclaiming part. 

Classify the parts of speech under each of these headings. What is 
to be done with the preposition in the first classification? 

Special Reading: Driggs—Our Living Language, 205-215. 

Substantive Constructions—Nouns 

Problem: 

To determine the function of the naming element in language. 

Outline of Problem: 

A. Classes—Common—Proper—Collective—Abstract. 

B. Properties 

1. Person—First—Second—Third. 

2. Gender—Masculine—Feminine—Neuter—Common—Inflection. 


♦See Driggs—Our Living Language—Uni. Pub. Co. 
fSee Bolenius—Everyday English Composition, page 79. 





248 (98) 


GRAMMAR 


3. Number—Inflections—Rules for Plural. 

4. Case—Nominative (Subject of verb; predicate nominative; nomi¬ 
native of address; nominative of exclamation; nominative abso¬ 
lute; nominative by apposition)—Accusative or Objective (Direct 
object; indirect object or dative; accusative with preposition; ad¬ 
junct accusative or objective complement; {adverbial accusative 
or adverbial object; predicate accusative or complement of infini¬ 
tive; accusative subject of infinitive; {retained objective; {second¬ 
ary object; {cognate accusative; accusative or objective by appo¬ 
sition)—Genitive (Possession; connection; genitive inflections). 

Related Problems: 

1. What punctuation marks should be taught in connection with the 
noun? 

2. What rules of capitalization should be taught in this connection ? 

3. How shall the principle that the use of a word in the sentence de¬ 
termines the part of speech to which it belongs be taught? 

4. What difficulties are met with in determining the kind of verb 
to use with a collective noun? 

Substantive Constructions—Pronouns 

Problem: 

It would be rather awkward if our language had no substitutes for 

nouns. Our problem in this chapter is 

“To recognize the functions of the simple substitutes for nouns”. 

Outline of Problem: 

A. Classes—Personal—Reflexive (intensive)—Interrogative—Relative 
(conjunctive)—Demonstrative—Indefinite. 

B. Properties—Person (Inflection; declension; agreement with ante¬ 
cedent)—Gender (Compare with nouns; inflection; agreement with 
antecedent)—Number (Compare with nouns; inflection; agreement 
with antecedent)—Case (Compare with nouns; case forms of per¬ 
sonal pronoun; relative pronouns). 

Related Problems: 

1. What form of pronouns shall be used with the gerund? 

2. What is the syntax of the appositive pronoun? 

3. Give examples of the accusative subject of the infinitive; accusa¬ 
tive complement of the infinitive. 


^Optional. 





« 


GRAMMAR (99) 249 

4. When should the nominative forms be used? 

5. List the nominative forms of the personal pronouns; the accusa¬ 
tive forms. 

6. How do interrogative pronouns and interrogative adjectives dif¬ 
fer in use? 

7. Compare relative (conjunctive) pronouns with relative (conjunc¬ 
tive) adjectives, conjunctive (relative) adverbs, and subordinate 
conjunctions. 

8. Study selected paragraphs containing clauses introduced by rela¬ 
tive pronouns and other forms of connectives; classify the con¬ 
necting words. 

9. Review sixty-two common errors given under Common Errors: 
How many are errors in the form or use of pronouns? Classify 
them as errors of gender, errors of person, or of case. 

10. Fill blanks with proper forms of pronouns in selected sentences. 
Note—Davenport and Emerson, Principles of Grammar, pp. 57- 
60, furnishes a good list for this work. 

11. Distinguish between demonstrative pronouns and pronominal ad¬ 
jectives in this same group. 

SUBSTANTIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 
Other Than Nouns and Pronouns 

Problem: 

There are substantive ideas that cannot be expressed by a single 
word, but require a group of words in relation—a group of words 
that functions as a single part of speech. We are concerned here 
with the problem 

“How groups of words in relation serve as substantive elements in 
sentences”. 

Outline of Problem: 

By Apposition. 

A. Gerund and Gerund Phrase—Subject of Verb—Predicate Nomina¬ 
tive—Direct Object or Accusative—Accusative after Preposition— 

B. Substantive Phrases—Subject of Verb—Predicate Nominative—Di¬ 
rect Object—With Preposition—In Apposition. 

C. Substantive Clauses—Used Same as Substantive Phrases. 

D. Infinitive—Subject of Verb—Predicate Nominative—Direct Object 
_Accusative with Preposition—Adjunct Accusative—By Apposi¬ 
tion. 


250 (100) 


GRAMMAR 


Related Problems: 

1. Review the complex sentence—Have you added to your knowl¬ 
edge of the structure and use of the complex sentence? Give 
proof of your statement. 

2. What effect on the variety of sentence structure does the study 
of substantives afford? 

3. Use the same substantive phrase in five different ways. 

4. Use the same substantive clause in five different ways. 

5. Use the same gerund in as many ways as you can. 

6. Arrange a summary of substantives in outline form. 


Problem: 


PARTS OF SPEECH 
Verb Forms 


To know the verb thoroughly is to hold the master key to the sen¬ 
tence. It is the part of speech that puts action and life into lan¬ 
guage. It is the action in the sentence, either mental or physical, 
that attracts our attention and holds us interested. The verb is the 
element of first importance in sentence building. To be effective in 
our speech, we must learn 

“How to use this element correctly and effectively”.* 

Outline of Problem: 


A. Classes 

1. As to Form—Regular (weak)—Irregular (strong)—Principal 
Parts. 

2. As to Use—Transitive—Intransitive—Linking (Copula; copula¬ 
tive). 

3. Predicative—Nonpredicative (participle; gerund; infinitive). 

B. Properties and Inflections 

1. Voice—Active—Passive—Use in Diction. 

2. Mood—Indicative—Subjunctive—Imperative. 

3. Tense—Primary (Present; past; future)—Secondary (Present 
perfect; past perfect; future perfect)—Principal Parts of Verbs— 
Sequence of Tenses—Use of Tenses in Diction—Tenses of Parti¬ 
ciple—Tenses of Infinitive. 


*See Driggs—Live Language Lessons, Third Book. 
See also Driggs—Our Living Language. 




GRAMMAR 


(101) 251 


4. Other Properties or Inflections—Person—Number—Conjugation 
Forms (active; passive; progressive; emphatic)—Synopsis. 

Related Problems: 

1. Why do pupils fail to make the verb agree with its subject? 
List five reasons. 

2. How is the participle differentiated from the gerund? 

3. What forms of the personal pronouns are used with the gerund? 

4. May the gerund be changed to the infinitive without loss to the 
sentence ? 

5. How will the use of participles and infinitives aid in sentence 
conciseness; in sentence variety? 

Read Driggs—Our Living Language, pp. 200-203. 

Klapper—The Teaching of English, pp. 237-239. 

6. List all the errors in the use of verbs you hear in one day. 

7. Devise a game which might be used to teach the right forms and 
uses of verbs to a second grade. 

8. What is your own greatest difficulty in the use of verbs? 

9. Devise a scheme to cure yourself of the habit of using the “dang¬ 
ling participle” and the split infinitive. 

10. Compare your last written composition with a selected paragraph 
of standard literature to determine your power in the use of par¬ 
ticiples and infinitives. 

11. Review the “other substantive constructions” Parts of Speech. 

12. Make a plan for teaching the correct use of lie, lay; of sit, set; 
of rise, raise; of will, shall. 

13. Illustrate by sentences the distinction between the past tense 
and the past participle of verbs often misused. 

14. In what ways may the action in a sentence be expressed ? 

15. Why is a clear knowledge of the verb so essential to good use 
of language? 

16. Arrange a summary of verb forms in outline form. 


252 (102) 


GRAMMAR 


PARTS OF SPEECH 

. * 

Adjectives and Adverbs 

(Adjectives) 

Problem: 

The descriptive adjective with its noun suggests to the mind a 
picture. It is to the writer much what color is to the artist. To be 
a skilled word painter, one must know how to choose and use effect¬ 
ively descriptive adjectives.* Definiteness in expression requires 
also recognition of the correct use of limiting adjectives. The prob¬ 
lem of this chapter is 

“The apt choice of adjectives for precision of expression and for 
skillful description”. 

Outline of Problem: 

A. Kinds—Descriptive (Common; proper)—Limiting Articles (Num¬ 
eral; pronominal). 

B. Construction (use)—Adherent—Predicate—Appositive. 

C. Properties and Inflections—Comparison (Degrees; regular and ir¬ 
regular; ascending and descending)—Number. 

D. Adjectival Modifiers—Words—Phrases—Clauses—Participles*—In¬ 
finitives. 

(Adverbs) 

Problem: 

We learned in a previous chapter that it is the action expressed in 
a sentence that usually attracts us. The problem in this chapter is 
“How to modify the expression of that action”. 

Outline of Problem: 

A. Kinds—Simple (Time; place; cause; manner; degree; modal) — 
Interrogative—Relative (conjunctive). 

B. Comparison—Positive, Comparative and Superlative. 

C. Adverbial Modifiers—(Words; phrases; clauses; adverbial accusa¬ 
tive—infinitives)—Adverbial idioms. 

Related Problems: 

1. Compare connecting adverbs and adjectives with the relative pro¬ 
nouns studied. 

2. Make a list of the errors in the use of adjectives and adverbs 
you hear about the school. How many are your own? 


*See Driggs—Live Language Lessons, Third Book. 



GRAMMAR 


(103) 253 


3. Study a selected paragraph to note how many adjectives in the 
superlative degree were used. What conclusions do you draw 
from your study? 

4. Make a plan for teaching to the sixth grade relative adjectives. 
Show how you will distinguish between these adjectives and con¬ 
junctive adverbs. 

5. Make a summary of the adjective in outline form. Make a simi¬ 
lar summary of the adverb. 


Problem: 


PARTS OF SPEECH 
Prepositions 


Nicety of expression requires a delicate and definite adjustment of 
the relations between words. In this, the preposition plays a very 
important part. The ability to use prepositions effectively is an en¬ 
viable accomplishment. 


Outline of Problem: 


Prepositions—Prepositional Phrases (Substantive; adjectival; ad¬ 
verbial—Troublesome Prepositions (Between, among; on, upon; in, 

into, etc.)—Prepositions and Idioms. 

Related Problems: 

1. What particular difficulties do you encounter in using preposi¬ 
tions ? 

2. List your most troublesome prepositions. 

3. Examine three or four grammar texts for the elementary school 
and note the treatment given to prepositions. 

4. Why did one authority in English say that “the preposition is 
one of the most important parts of speech”? 

5. Illustrate the misuse of our English preposition by foreign¬ 
speaking people. 


PARTS OF SPEECH 
Conjunctions 

Problem: 

Few people realize how much clear expression depends upon the 
proper use of connecting elements. It requires clear thinking to 
use conjunctions properly. 


254 (104) 


GRAMMAR 


Outline of Problem: 

Coordinate—Correlative—Subordinate (Compare with relative ad¬ 
jectives; relative pronouns; relative adverbs). 

Related Problems: 

1. Make a clear cut distinction between relative adjectives, relative 
pronouns, relative (conjunctive) adverbs, and subordinate con¬ 
junctions. 

2. Review the subordinate clause and determine the type and func¬ 
tion of the connecting 1 element. 

3. Distinguish between the relations shown by prepositions and 
those shown by conjunctions. 

4. Arrange a summary of conjunctive constructions in outline form. 

SUMMARY AND REVIEW 
Learning to Use Grammar 

Outline of Problem: 

Inflections—Modifiers—Phrases—Clauses—Infinitives—Participles — 
Relatives and Conjunctives (including subordinate conjunctions) — 
Different Uses of Same Word—Parsing—Diagraming—Analysis— 
Grammar and Correct Usage—Difficulty of Applying Known Facts 

in Grammar—Technique of Teaching Grammar. 

/ 

Related Problems: 

1. What are the minimum essentials of nouns? Pronouns? 

2. What are the minimum essentials of verb forms? 

3. When should the study of technical grammar begin? 

4. What are the values of formal grammar? 

5. What points should be borne in mind in teaching a grammar 
lesson? 

6. Make a summary of inflections in outline form. 

7. Make a summary of modifiers in outline form. 

8. Make a summary of clauses in outline form. 

9. Make a summary of the infinitive in outline form. 

10. Make a summary of the participle in outline form. 

11. Make a lesson plan for teaching inductively the transitive and 
intransitive verbs. 

12. Select a paragraph from an editorial in a newspaper or from a 
magazine article. What principles of grammar were applied in 
its construction? 


GRAMMAR 


(105) 255 


13. What is the purpose of parsing, diagraming, analysis ? Diagram 
and analyze selected sentences. Parse the words in these sen¬ 
tences. 

14. What are the essentials of a good definition? 

Special Readings: 

Driggs—Our Living Language, Part VI. 

Klapper—The Teaching of English, Chapters XIII-XIV. 

LIST OF REFERENCES 
Grammar Texts 

*Bolenius—Everyday English Composition, Second Book—American 
Book Co., Chicago. 

fPearson & Kirchway—Essentials of English, Second Book, A. B. C. 
*Driggs—Live Language Lessons, Third Book—University Publish¬ 
ing Co., Lincoln. 

*Emerson & Bender—Modern English, Book II—Macmillan Co., Chi¬ 
cago. 

Gowdy—English Grammar—Allyn and Bacon, Chicago. 

fKittredge and Farley—Advanced English Grammar—Ginn and Co., 

Chicago. (Also—A Concise English Grammar.) 

fDavenport and Emerson—Principles of Grammar, MacMillan Co., 

Chicago. 

*Potter, Jeschke and Gillette—Oral and Written English Books, Ginn 
and Company, Chicago. 

*Charters, Betz & Cowan—Essential Language Habits, Book III— 
Silver Burdette Co., Chicago. 

fLieper—A New English Grammar, Macmillan Co., Chicago. 

Standardized Tests 

$Kirby—Grammar Test, Form I—T. J. Kirby, University of Iowa, 
Iowa City, Iowa. 

JStarch—Punctuation Scale A—Bureau of Educational Research, 
University of Nebraska; or Bureau of Educational Research, Uni¬ 
versity of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. 

Charters—Diagnostic Language and Grammar Tests—Pronouns, 
Verbs A, Miscellaneous—Bureau of Educational Research, Univer¬ 
sity of Nebraska; or Bureau of Educational Research, University 
of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. 

Trabue_Language Scales—Bureau of Educational Research, Uni¬ 

versity of Nebraska. 

Standards and Courses of Study 

f Sheridan—Speaking and Writing English, Benjamin H. Sanborn and 
Company, Chicago. 


256 (106) 


GRAMMAR 


jfMahoney—Standards in English—World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hud- 
son, N. Y. 

Charters—Sixteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study 
of Education, Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Ill. 

The Teaching of English 

Driggs—Our Living Language: How to Teach It and How to Use 
It—University Publishing Company, Lincoln. 

Klapper—The Teaching of English—D. Appleton and Company, Chi¬ 
cago. 

Lieper—Language Work in Elementary Schools—Ginn and Co., Chi¬ 
cago. 

Barnes—English in the Country School—Row, Peterson & Co., Chi¬ 
cago. 

Carpenter, Baker and Scott—The Teaching of English—Longmans, 
Green & Co., Chicago. 

Goldwasser—Method and Methods in the Teaching of English—D. C. 
Heath & Co., Chicago. 

O’Shea—Linguistic Development and Education—The Macmillan Co., 
Chicago. 


♦Elementary—For grades. 
tAdvanced—High school grade. 
tRequired in this course. 
^Copies for reference. 







READING 

Course A 
By G. A. Yoakam 
Kearney State Teachers College 

Course B 
Prof. A. A. Reed 
University of Nebraska 











READING 


258 (108) 


Reading 

i 

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 
Alternative Courses Offered 

“AMERICAN education has entered the experimental period. Al¬ 
ready various problems pertaining to the construction of curricula and to 
methods of organizing schools and teaching the various branches of in¬ 
struction have been subjected to critical examination according to scien¬ 
tific ^procedure. A considerable body of accurate data bearing upon the 
values of studies and economy and efficiency in educational practice has 
been secured. But what we have achieved thus far has served mainly 
to increase our interest in the experimental investigation of every phase 

of our educational work. The problems involved have become so 

subtle and complex that they cannot be disposed of by mere expression 
of opinion, and this is the chief reason why there is a constantly deepen¬ 
ing belief that we must assume the attitude of the unprejudiced investi¬ 
gator toward every vital question that is in dispute. It would not 

do to continue our schools according to the traditional program until 
investigators had studied every detail of the curriculum and methods of 
teaching and of organization of school systems, and then attempt to 
construct de novo a school based on the principles developed by this 
experimental investigation. These principles should be tested and em¬ 
bodied in school practice as fast as they are established by scientific 
inquiry. This is the only effective way to determine whether the modi¬ 
fications in educational procedure suggested by experimental study are 
feasible and whether they work out well in practice under the usual 
conditions environing American schools.”* 

In the true spirit of inquiry and scientific investigation we have 
included herein two courses of study in reading, the first by Dr. G. A. 
Yoakam, Director of Teacher Training, Kearney State Teachers College, 
the second by Prof. A. A. Reed, Director University Extension Division, 
University of Nebraska. Each of the courses presents a different point 
of view, and a different method of attack. It is hoped that superinten¬ 
dents and normal training teachers will give the two courses fair and 
impartial trial in their normal training classes in alternate years. They 
need have no prejudice in favor of the one or the other on account of the 
examinations for certificates. The questions will be so framed as not 
to jeopardize the chances of the average pupil who has been well taught 
in either course. 


♦Freeland—Modern Elementary School Practice, Macmillan. 






READING 


(109) 259 


The Department is seeking what is best for normal training high 
schools and believes that this best can only be found by cooperative un¬ 
prejudiced inquiry and endeavor. As Charles W. Eliot says in his “Edu¬ 
cational Reform”, published by the Century Co.: “This spirit seeks only 
the fact, without the slightest regard to consequences; any twisting or 
obscuring of the fact to accommodate it to a preconceived theory, hope, 
or wish, any tampering with the actual result of investigation, is the 
unpardonable sin. It is a spirit at once humble and dauntless, patient 
of details, drawing indeed no distinction between great and small, but 
only between true and false; passionless but energetic, venturing into 
pathless waste» to bring back a fact, caring only for truth, candid as a 
still lake, expectant, unfettered and tireless. 

‘Work of his hand 
He nor commends- nor grieves: 

Pleads for itself the fact. . . ” 

General Aims 

“There has been a generally accepted theory that ‘reading is getting 
the thought from the printed page’, but in practice much of the reading 
in schools consists in orally reproducing the words of the printed page. 
‘Good expression’ in oral reading commonly receives first and most care¬ 
ful attention. Systematic search for the thought is often omitted or 
slighted. In fact, not infrequently oral reading and reading have been 
treated as equivalent. 

It is true that oral reading is an important part of teaching to read, 
but it should be realized that the ability to recognize and say words, 
even to say them with a semblance of understanding, is not a proof of 
ability to read. One may do this and yet be quite unable to read with 
intelligence or appreciation. 

Dr. G. Stanley Hall appositely says: ‘True reading is taking in the 
ideas, sentiments, facts of the author as completely and as unchanged as 
possible. . . . Later, of course, and only later, comes the reader’s critical 
reaction upon what he has read’. 

The reading to which Dr. Hall refers is purely a mental process, 
the first half of which is sympathetic understanding, appreciation, and 
self-surrender to the author. The second half consists in putting the 
author’s thought over against the reader’s experience and conviction. 
This requires the reader’s self-assertion and his critical judgment. 

Thus we see that the mere vocal pronunciation of words is only a 
mechanical phase of reading. In the early stages of learning to read, 
we have to emphasize it, and keep the child saying ‘cat’ and ‘mat’ until 
he recognizes the idea instantly from the printed words. But this empha- 


260 (110) 


READING 


sis is justified only as it is recognized as an economical approach to true 
reading. The teacher should keep before the child the great purpose of 
reading—that through this patient labor he is unlocking for himself a 
magic storehouse of wonderful tales.”* 

“The joy of a little child when he finds that he can read is a force 
which the teacher needs to appreciate. If she can keep this joy alive 
from the time when he first triumphs in his recognition of a few words 
until he leaves the fourth grade with the ability to read and enjoy the 
simple material adapted to his age, she will have done much for her 

pupil. Teachers of beginners realize the need for careful study of 

their problems. Teachers of second, third, and fourth grades have a 
much richer opportunity in this field than they are aware of. In many 
instances their problems are the same as those of the teachers of be¬ 
ginners, differing in degree rather than in kind, but the added ability and 
maturity of the pupils open new possibilities for the reading recitation. 

In general, the teaching of reading divides itself into problems of 
thought and problems of form. The skillful teacher helps her pupils to 
keep the thought in mind, to develop and enjoy it, while at the same 
time she is guiding them in the mastery of the words and word groups 
which convey the thought. 

The problem of reading, i. e., the interpretation of the page with 
accuracy and with reasonable speed, remains the same, irrespective of 
the grade or the department of the school in which the subject is taught. 
There is, however, a disposition on the part of many teachers, particularly 
in the intermediate and grammar grades, to confuse the values of reading 
and literature. Literature as such is not taught primarily for its habit¬ 
forming or informational values, while reading is. The fundamental 
purpose of beginning reading is that of training children in the facile 
recognition, use, and interpretation of words and sentences; later reading 
becomes the primary intellectual instrument for the acquisition of infor¬ 
mation. Both literature and reading have certain conventional and dis¬ 
ciplinary values, but instruction in them is not justified wholly for these 
reasons. Literature, considered as the finest of the fine arts, is one of 
the chief sources, also, for the development of ideals; but this outcome is 
only incidental to reading.”! 

Phases of the Problem 
1. The Reading Vocabulary. 

“During the first two grades the reading material deals with words 
whose meaning the children already know. Beginning with the third 
grade words not in the average child’s vocabulary are being introduced 


*Kendall and Mirick—How to Teach the Fundamental Subjects, Houghton Mifflin Co. 
fRapeer—How to Teach Elementary School Subjects, Scribners. 




READING 


(111) 261 


through reading lessons in an ever increasing number. Upon the mastery 
of the meaning of these new words depends the ability of getting the 
thought accurately from the printed page. It will be necessary therefore 
to start a new line of work in the third grade to be continued through¬ 
out the elementary school—a type of work that merits much more atten¬ 
tion than it now receives. A thorough mastery of the reading vocabulary 
in the intermediate and grammar grades requires as much attention and 
drill as does the mastery of phonics and sight words in the primary 
grades.”* 

2. Oral Reading. 

“Oral reading is usually defined as a process of thought-getting and 
thought-giving. This definition implies that the oral reader must be 
given an audience. His motive for oral reading is to convey his inter¬ 
pretation of the printed page to others who do not know what it is and 
who are anxious to find out. The individuals who gladly listen to another 
reading orally to learn what the printed page is about are his audience. 
When pupils are assigned the same lesson for study and then meet later 
in a so-called recitation merely to practice oral reading, they do their 
oral reading without a real audience. The reader knows that he has 
nothing to give that his classmates do not already possess. He has no 
motive to read and they have no motive to listen.”* 

3. Silent Reading. 

“The teacher should make a sharp distinction between oral and silent 
reading and plan lessons accordingly. In grades below the sixth speed 
and accuracy of interpretation are to be emphasized in the teaching of 
silent reading. Unless children have formed habits of rapid and careful 
silent reading before they enter the grammar grades, they will not likely 

acquire these abilities at all. The ability to read well silently is 

a complex process in which a number of specific abilities are involved. 
The development of one of these specific abilities does not develop the 
others or the process as a whole. Each one must receive special treat¬ 
ment.” They are “(1) ability to read rapidly; (2) ability to interpret the 
printed page accurately; (3) ability to reproduce what is read; and 

(4) ability to read for information to answer specific questions. 

The following silent reading abilities should be developed in the upper 
grammar grades: (1) the ability to express the central thought of a 
paragraph or stanza; (2) the ability to put the central thought of a para¬ 
graph or stanza in the form of a question; (3) the ability to select the 
important thoughts in a lesson and arrange them in the order of impor¬ 
tance; (4) the ability to select the important thoughts in a lesson and 
arrange them in the form of an outline showing which are of equal rank 
and which are subordinate in rank.”* 


♦Dean H. H. Hahn—Professional Training Course. 





262 (112) 


READING 


4. Quantitative Reading. 

“The purpose of quantitative reading in the lower grades is twofold: 
(1) to give children the enjoyment of reading an interesting selection 
without interruption; (2) to give them the much needed practice in the 
development of the reading ability. It may consist (1) of oral reviews 
of interesting lessons children like to read more than once, (2) of oral 
sight reading of easy and unusually interesting material, and (3) of 
extensive home reading, either oral or silent. For their home reading 
children may use interesting supplementary readers or story books for 

children. The greatest weakness in the teaching of reading in the 

lower grades is that too often in the minds of the teachers it is MERE 
PRACTICE. How would you like to practice on an interesting selection ? 
Would you enjoy reading an interesting part of the selection and then be 
called back to read again from the beginning? Would you be satisfied to 
forego the reading of the whole story in order that you might read a 
part of it again and again? Of course not! Neither do the children. 
Quantitative reading corrects this weakness. Its purpose is to give 
children a chance to read.”* 

5. Testing Results. 

Use of Standard Tests 

The standard tests prescribed in this course have the following pur¬ 
poses: 

1. To disclose abilities of members of class in subject matter. 

2. As a means of diagnosing weaknesses of previous learning. 

3. As a basis for remedial instruction to correct faults of previous 
learning and to develop specific abilities. 

4. To indicate individual differences in ability or attainment. 

5. As a point of departure in conducting the class instruction. 

These tests are to be given in the manner prescribed and at the time 
prescribed. They are to be given before the class enters upon the study 
of the subject tested or they are valueless for the purposes here used. 

Report the results of these tests to this Department. We will compile 
and consolidate the results and report our results to normal training 
high schools as a tentative norm for normal training classes. 


*Idib. 







READING 


(113) 263 


Reading 

Course A 

INTRODUCTION 
Importance of Reading 

Reading is rightly regarded as a subject of great importance in the 
Elementary School. The acquisition of the ability to read books and 
understand their meaning is at the basis of all success in school work. 
Moreover, most occupations outside of school call for some ability to 
read. It is therefore of greatest importance that those who are to teach 
in our common schools should clearly understand and appreciate the 
problems of teaching reading. 

Within the last few years the emphasis in teaching reading has 
shifted from the teaching of oral reading to the teaching of silent read¬ 
ing. Our leading schools are now placing the greater emphasis on the 
latter skill because it is recognized as of much greater importance in 
the life outside of school than that of oral reading. Except for a few, 
the occasions foT oral reading are not so frequent nor so crucial as the 
needs for silent reading. For this reason, more time should be spent in 
the rural and graded schools on the study of silent reading, and a cor¬ 
respondingly less time on oral reading. 

There was a time in the early days of our country when oral reading 
was of primary importance. There were few books and magazines avail¬ 
able in those days. News was transmitted by word of mouth. The 
“town crier” was one of the principle characters in the life of the time. 
Today conditions have changed. Magazines, newspapers and books have 
multiplied until they are in almost every home. It is no longer neces¬ 
sary to transmit news by word of mouth. 

Silent reading is used largely for pleasure and for informational 
purposes. Therefore, the teacher in making her preparation for teach¬ 
ing reading should lay the emphasis where it belongs. 

References: 

Parker—Methods of Teaching in Elementary Schools, pages 84-95. 

Briggs & Coffman—Chapter I, pages 9-23. 

Searson & Martin—Teachers Manual, Chapter I. 

Germane & Germane—Silent Reading, Chapter I. 



264 (114) 


READING 


Aims of Course 

In view of the above, the course in reading for members of Normal 
Training classes should have three distinct aims: 

1. Individual and class attention given to the oral reading and the 
silent reading of the members of the Normal Training class. 

2. Instruction in principles of method in silent reading. 

3. Instruction in principles of method in oral reading. 

Division of Time 

The following division of time for the twelve weeks devoted to the 
courses of reading is suggested: 

Teacher’s Reading—Two weeks. 

Silent Reading—Six weeks. 

Oral Reading, including primary methods—Four weeks. 

Testing Results in Reading 

The use of standardized tests is one of the best devices to stimu¬ 
late good reading. The results of these tests should determine the line 
of endeavor in the succeeding teaching; that is, whether speed or com¬ 
prehension exercises are most needed in silent reading; whether or not 
the class is weak in vocabulary; and whether or not there are physical 
causes why the children do not read well. Oral reading tests will 
reveal mechanical difficulties which may be attacked directly and elim¬ 
inated as rapidly as possible. The effect of the test will be to empha¬ 
size the difficulties which exist. Results of tests will also measure the 
achievements of reading and tell whether or not the efforts of the 
teacher on the whole have been successful. 

Materials Used in the Course 

The chief sources of information for this course will be as follows: 

Klapper: Teaching Children to Read. D. Appleton Co., N. Y., 1914. 

20th Year Book, Part II, National Society for the Study of Education. 
Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. 

18th Year Book, Part II, National Society for the Study of Education. 
Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. 

19th Year Book, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education. 
Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. 

Biiggs & Coffman: Reading in the Public Schools. Row, Peterson 
& Co., Chicago, Ill. 

Sherman & Reed: Essentials of Teaching Reading. University 
Publishing Co., Chicago, Ill., 1914. 


READING 


(115) 265 

Clark, S. H.: How to Teach Reading in Public Schools. Scott, 
Foresman & Co., Chicago, Ill., 1903. 

Stone, C. R.: Silent and Oral Reading. Houghton Mifflin Co., Chi¬ 
cago, Ill., 1922. 

Watkins, Emma: How to Teach Silent Reading to Beginners. 
Lippincott, Chicago, Ill., 1922. 

Germane & Germane: Silent Reading. Row, Peterson & Co., Chi¬ 
cago, Ill., 1922. 

It is recommended that the Normal Training Library be furnished 
with two or three copies of each of these references. Supplementary 
references are appended to this course. 

Literature 

It is recommended that the silent reading period be devoted to the 
development in school of the ability to read for information and instruc¬ 
tion, while the literature period be one of reading for pleasure, either 
aloud or silently, material suitable to the children’s needs. This period 
may also include the study of oral reading insofar as such study is nec¬ 
essary for the understanding of words and correct pronunciation, and 
an effective rendition of literary selections for the pleasure of others. 

A literary reader may be a good guide for material to be used in 
this connection, but it is advisable to have a list of selections suitable 
for children of the Elementary School. A list of the literary selections 
as discovered by the examinations of courses of study in fifty American 
cities, and a comparative study of lists of literary selections for Elemen¬ 
tary Schools, is appended to this course.# 

Stone: Silent and Oral Reading, Chapters VI and VII. 

PART I—THE TEACHER’S READING 

Before attempting to teach children it is well for the teacher to con¬ 
sider her own reading ability. The instructor of the Normal Training 
class is therefore advised to proceed to test the ability of the class in 
reading. For this purpose, the following tests are suggested: 

Courtis Silent Reading Tests. S. A. Courtis, Detroit, Mich. $1.80 
per 100. Folder B., 5c; Class Record, lV 2 c; Record Sheet No. 3, and 
graphs sheet, IV 2 C each. 

Gray Oral Reading Tests. W. S. Gray, University of Chicago. Price 
(before war) 50c per 100. 

jYoakam, G. A.: A Course of Study in Literature for the Eleinentary School. 
Thesis: Unpublished. 




266 (116) 


READING 


Thorndike-McCall: Silent Reading Tests. Teachers’ College, Co¬ 
lumbia University. 

*Monroe Silent Reading Tests. Extension Division, University of 
Illinois. 60c per 100. Postage 9c per 100. 

May Ayres-Burgess Scale. Russell-Sage Foundation Scale, 130 East 
22nd street, New York City. $1.25 per 100. 

Fordyce Silent Reading Test. University of Nebraska, Lincoln. 

Haggerty-Noonan Reading Achievement Test. One copy of test for 
each pupil. Score sheet and manual needed. (Sigma I.) Price: Tests 
per 25, $1.40. Scoring key, 5c. Manual, 40c. 

Stone: Silent and Oral Reading, Chapter IX. 

A sufficient supply of these reading 1 scales should be on hand at the 
beginning of the course. 

Problem 1 

Silent Reading Ability of the Teacher 

It is obvious that occasions for silent reading by the teacher are 
very frequent and crucial. In preparing for her lesson she will need to 
do a great deal of silent reading, and, if she is slow in reading and poor 
in comprehension she will be unable to do a desirable quality of work. 
It is therefore recommended that at this point tests in silent reading be 
given to determine the standard of this class. For this purpose give 
the following: Monroe Silent Reading Test, Test 3 for the upper grades 
or the May Ayres-Burgess Silent Reading Test. Study carefully the 
results and note both the rate and comprehension of the members of the 
class. Also instruct carefully the members of the class in giving these 
silent reading tests. Directions for giving these tests may be found in 
Monroe, Devoss & Kelly, “Educational Measurements”, Macmillan Co. 
The Burgess Test contains directions in the test itself. 

Members of the class may be interested in reading this type of ma¬ 
terial, and in estimating the reading rate by either counting the total 
number of words read in a minute or estimating the number of words 
read in from three to five minutes. An individual record of reading for 
this kind of material for each person is a means of stimulating an interest 
in reading rate. From the standpoint of economy, the teacher should be 
able to read at a high rate of speed and very effectively. 

Project 1 

Measure the silent reading ability of the class. Use the Monroe 
Silent Reading Test—Test III, Form I. Compile scores for rate and 
comprehension. Graph the results. Study the individual scores. 


*Required in this course. 




READING 


(117) 267 


Project 2 

Let each individual member of the class decide what are her weak¬ 
nesses in reading. Then let her attempt during two weeks to raise her 
rate or comprehension. Keep track of the time spent and the results. 

Read the following references if possible. In general they emphasize 
the teacher’s problem of reading. 

Briggs & Coffman: Chapter I. 

Hall, G. Stanley: Educational Problems, Volume 2. 

“Reading” in good encyclopedia. 

Suggestive Questions 

1. What is the importance of rate? 

2. By what is rate determined? 

3. How many different kinds of rate are there? 

4. Can you change your pace in reading? 

5. Do you comprehend well? 

6. What can you do to change favorably your reading habits? 

Problem 2 

Correcting Difficulties in Silent Reading 

In case members of the class are found slow in reading and deficient 
in comprehension, the following types of exercises should be used for 
some time and individuals should practice in private for the purpose of 
increasing their reading ability: 

1. Speed Exercises. 

• 

a. Read to find references, or skim to find answer t» question. 

b. Extensive reading for purpose of getting main thought. 

c. Phrase-flashing exercises for those who are faulty in eye 
movement or who are lip-readers. 

2. Comprehension Exercises. 

a. Practice reading various materials silently for the purpose 
of reproducing the thought. Try to eliminate vocalization. 

b. Make written summaries of paragraphs to emphasize the 
content. 

c. Use direction and action exercises designed for children in 
the Intermediate grades to increase comprehension and speed. 

Little time should be devoted to these exercises at this point except 
to call to the attention of the teacher the importance of the effective 
rate of reading and of accurate comprehension. It should be pointed out 
to the teacher that she is bound to be handicapped in her work if she is 


268 (118) 


READING 


inefficient in the silent reading of such material as she is likely to use in 
preparation of her lessons. 

Reference: 

19th Year Book. Part I. Pages 52-57. Reading of College Students. 

Problem 3 

A Study of Factors Involved in Oral Reading 
How They May Be Improved 

This project may consume several days. 

(1) What are the factors in oral reading? 

Time. 

Sherman & Reed: Chapter I. Pages 3-12. 

Clark: How to Teach Reading. Chapter I. Pages 19-41. 

Grouping. 

Sherman & Reed: Chapter II. Pages 13-18. 

Clark: Chapter VI. Pages 128-131. 

Emphasis. 

Sherman & Reed: Chapter III. Pages 19-32. 

Inflection. 

Sherman & Reed: Chapter IV. Pages 33-39. 

% 

Force. 

Sherman & Reed: Chapter V. Pages 40-45. 

Clark: Chapter IV. Pages 101-113. 

It is recommended 'that sufficient study of these factors be given to 
emphasize their importance in effective dramatic reading. At the same 
time it must be remembered that the reading for the average reader is 
not of a dramatic type, and that a fairly effective reading in ordinary 
tone and with accurate pronunciation of words is as much as may be 
expected of most people. 

(2) What are the points to be considered in interpretive reading? 

Types. 

Sherman & Reed: Chapter VII. Pages 57-68. 

. f i-' ■ v • > 

Effects. 

Sherman & Reed: Chapter VIII. Pages 69-79. 


READING 


(119) 269 


Suggestive Problems 

1. How effective in oral reading may one expect teachers in the 
grades or rural schools to be ? 

2. Is it necessary for teachers of elementary grades to be effective 
dramatic readers ? 

3. Would it be economical for a teacher to train herself in effective 
dramatic reading and at the same time neglect to teach the principles to 
children ? 

4. How many occasions do you have for oral reading? What pro¬ 
portion of the reading you do is oral? 

5. In what grades is skill in oral reading by the teacher particularly 
necessary ? 

6. Would it be possible for a teacher to do much less oral reading 
than she does ? 

7. Has a teacher any excuse for reading to children because she 
likes it? 

8. Should a teacher read orally material which children can read 
for themselves? 

9. Will the ability acquired in oral reading by the teacher neces¬ 
sarily transfer to her teaching of oral reading? 

10. In the light of standardized tests in oral reading, has the in¬ 
struction given in the grades in this skill been effective? 

Project 3 

Measuring Oral Reading Ability of the Class 

Every teacher should be an effective oral reader. There are many 

/ 

occasions upon which it becomes necessary for her to read to the chil¬ 
dren, particularly in the literature period when reading stories to the 
young children. It becomes necessary, therefore, for the teacher in train¬ 
ing to consider her reading ability, and, if it is weak, to take effective 
measures for its improvement. In oral reading the teacher will always 
be the model of her pupils. 

At this point the instructor will give the Gray Oral Reading Test to 
the class. One copy of this test is needed for each pupil. A score sheet 
and instructions for giving the test are necessary. The instructor should 
take sufficient time to explain the technique of testing to the Normal 
Training students so that they may use it in their classroom work. The 
results of testing should be tabulated and the average or median for the 
class indicated. The class should then study the individual weaknesses 
of members, and the instructor and the class together should plan reme¬ 
dial measures. 


/■ 


270 (120) READING 

PART II—TEACHING SILENT READING 

• 

The aim of the exercises provided in this section is to give the 
prospective teacher instruction in the principles of silent reading. Enough 
practical work is provided so that the teacher may come into first hand 
contact with the problems of silent reading and understand thoroughly 
the practice as well as the theory. Silent reading is introduced here: 
First, because of its primary importance as a means of teaching the 
child how to study; Second, to enable him to read rapidly and under¬ 
stand clearly what he reads. The comparative recency of emphasis on 
silent reading also makes it necessary to instruct the teacher with the 
principles of method, since in her own experience she has not had the 
opportunity to acquire consciously the technique of teaching silent read¬ 
ing. 

It is recognized that according to most authorities, oral reading must 
precede silent reading, and that it occupies a position of relatively more 
importance in the first two or three grades than silent reading. However, 
opinion is divided at the present time. In actual practice the teacher will 
probably take up oral reading with the primary grades before she does 
silent reading, but in the intermediate and upper grades greater emphasis 
will be placed upon the latter. Some authorities say that the mechanics 
of reading will be mastered by the end of the third year, or even the 
second, and from this time increasing emphasis should be placed upon 
silent reading. The large demands in life for silent reading would cer¬ 
tainly seem to argue that the schools should begin the teaching of silent 
reading sooner and be more effective in such teaching. 

The materials for the study in this section are as follows: 

Bolenius, E. M.: Teacher's Manual to Bolenius. Readers. Pages 13-59. 

Briggs & Coffman: Reading in the Public Schools. Chapter I. pages 

9-22; Chapter VII, pages 62-69; Chapter XXIII, pages 259-275. 

Gray, W. S.: Principles of Method in Silent Reading. 18th Year¬ 
book, Part II. 

Germane and Germane: Silent Reading. 

Kendall & Mirick: How to Teach Fundamental Subjects. 

Klapper: Teaching Children to Read. Pages 137-140. 

Lewis & Rowland: Silent Reading. J. C. Winston & Co., Chicago, Ill. 

Monroe, W. S.: Measuring Results in Teaching. Chapter III. Pages 

43-96. 

Stone, C. R.: Silent and Oral Reading. 

Searson & Martin: Teacher's Manual. University Pub. Co., Lincoln. 

Watkins, Emma: How to Teach Silent Reading to Beginners. 

* 19th Year Book. Part I. Nat'l Society for the Study of Ed. 

20th Year Book. Part I. Nat'l Society for the Study of Ed. 

20th Year Book. Part II. Nat’l Society for the Study of Ed. 


READING 


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PROJECT 1 

Measuring Reading Achievements 

Give Burgess Silent Reading Test to a grade in your school or get 
the results of tests that have been given in your school and study them. 

1. What do you find as to the rate of this grade? 

2. What as to comprehension? 

3. From a study of the individual papers can you find out what 
reading difficulties are causing lack of progress in this class? 

4. Refer to these tests as you continue the course to find concrete 

* 

examples of facts presented. 


Problem 1 

What are the Factors Involved in Silent Reading 

It is generally agreed by authorities that the factors involved in oral 
reading are: rate, pronunciation, enunciation, articulation, emphasis, 
force and quality. The factors involved in silent reading on the other 
hand are rate, comprehension, organization and remembrance. 1 

The tendency in oral reading has been to emphasize facts that have 
to do with mechanics in reading. In silent reading, the emphasis has 
been placed upon thought-getting. 2 

Investigators have frequently referred to two of the above in par¬ 
ticular, namely: rate and comprehension. Silent reading tests now in 
existence measure either one or both of these two factors. Both should 
be emphasized by the teacher of beginning reading. 

PROBLEM 2 

How Important is Rate and How May It Be Improved? 

Teachers are just awaking to the importance of rate in silent read¬ 
ing. The ability to read material at a high rate of speed and with good 
comprehension is a habit that is greatly needed in school work, for it 
means a large saving of time and a greatly increased efficiency. If it 
is true that the school demands too much time of the children, it is also 
obviously true that increasing the rate of reading will lessen the amount 
of time necessary to be spent on the assignment and will result in a 
large increase in the ability of children to do work or will lessen the 
amount of time necessary to do the work required. It is probable that 
the silent reading rates of most children are far below what it is possible 
for them to become. 


1 Horn, E.: Constructive Program in Silent Reading. Journal of Educational Re¬ 
search. May, 1921. Pages 336-344. 

2 Courtis, S. A.: Gary Survey. Page 263. “Measurement of Classroom Products.” 
General Educational Board, New York. Price, 30c. (Chapter on Reading especially 

good.) 



272 (122) 


READING 


References: 

Briggs & Coif man: Chapter XXIII. Pages 259-267. 

Klapper: Chapter I. Pages 1-6. 

Klapper: Chapter III. Pages 17-26. 

18th Year Book. Part II. Pages 38-41. 

Germane & Germane: Pages 27-44. 

Stone: Pages 162-168. 

Project 2 

# 

Measure rate of silent reading to note individual differences in a 
grade. Use Courtis Silent Reading Test No. 2. 

Project 3 

Eye Movement in Reading 

It has been determined by experiment that speed in reading depends 
largely on eye movements. The following experiment will indicate to 
the students something of the significance of eye movements: 

“Have the subject stand near a window, facing the light; have him 
read a page of easily comprehended prose, noting by the watch the 
moment he closes the page; the experimenter should stand in such posi¬ 
tion as to see the eye movements of the reader, noting that these move¬ 
ments proceed from left to right on a line, by a succession of quick, 
jerky motions; count the entire number of these jerky movements made 
during the reading of the page; add to the number one count for each 
line, as one movement is last at the left hand end of each line. 

Divide the number of eye movements by the number of lines read 
to get the average number of movements per line. Count the number 
of words read and divide by the number of eye pauses to get the average 
number of words read per eye movement. Have both a slow reader and 
a rapid one read the same page to note which makes the greater number 
of eye movements per line. 

It is essential to perform each experiment several times and take 
the median of the results.*” 


Prcblem 3 

What Attention Should Be Given to Rate in Primary Grades? 

It has been found that the rate of silent reading surpasses the rate 
of oral reading between the second and third grades. Again, the rate 
of articulation is surpassed by rate of recognition at the beginning of 
the fourth grade. 1 Investigators have also discovered that the mechanics 
of oral reading are perfected either in the second or third grades. 


*Dr. Charles Fordyce, University of Nebraska. 
3 Gray, W. S.: 18th Year Book. Part II, page 29. 



READING 


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Theisen says that oral reading ability may be developed through silent 
reading even in the primary grades and recommends less oral reading 
and more silent reading in this period. 2 Briggs & Coffman suggest that 
no oral reading should be given until the end of the first six weeks. 3 

E^pf^imental evidence is already available to show that children in 
the first grade may be taught silent reading almost exclusively and still 
excel the standard rate in oral reading by the end of the first year. At 
the present state of development, however, it is probably wise to empha¬ 
size oral and silent reading in the primary grades. The following exer¬ 
cises, and others like them, may be used once a day during the first two 
years. 


Exercise 1 
Action Exercise 

Let the teacher write on the board or use flash cards containing 
such words as: jump stand row dance 

sit hop come fly 

The child responds in the appropriate fashion by carrying out the 
suggested actions. The value of such an exercise is that it emphasizes 
the silent reading bond, that is, the bond between the symbol and its 
meaning. 


Exercise 2 
Matching Exercise 

Names of familiar objects may be printed on flash cards. A collec¬ 
tion of objects to correspond with the words is then made. The exercise 
is to match words with objects. The following types of words are 
learned: (1) Names of animals; (2) Objects in room; (3) Play-things; 
(4) Common articles about the home. 


Exercise 3 
Direction Exercise 


As a vocabulary is learned, words are combined into sentences which 
are responded to by carrying out the appropriate action. 

Run to me. 

Sit in the chair. 

Shut the window. 

Stand on the floor. 

Close the door. 


Speed is encouraged in these exercises by insisting upon the pupils 
performing them as rapidly as possible. 

2 Factors Affecting Results in Oral Reading. 20th Year Book; Nat’l Society for the 

Study of Education. Part II, page 8. 

3 Briggs & Coffman: Reading in Public Schools. Pages 62-63. 





274 (124) 


READING 


/ 

/ 

/ 

Numerous other exercises are available and may be found by reading 
the following references. These exercises have been thoroughly tested 
and are found to be excellent. 

References: 

Theisen, W. W.: Factors Effecting Results in Primary Reading. 
20th Year Book; Part II; pages 1-24. 

Heller & Courtis: Silent Reading Exercises developed in Detroit, 
20th Year Book; Part II; pages 153-161. 

Silent Reading Exercises Developed at Denver, Cedar Rapids, Racine 
and Iowa City. 20th Year Book; Part II; pages 162-172. 

Atwood: Primary Reaeding Exercises from Janesville, Wis., 19th 
Year Book; Part I; pages 20-30. 

Briggs & Coffman: Pages 72-78. 

Watkins: How to Teach Silent Reading to Beginners. 

Germane and Germane: Chapter XI. 

Suggestive Problems 

1. Which is faster in the primary grades, the oral or silent reading 
rate ? 

2. How should flash cards be used? How handled before children? 

3. How long should such exercises as above be continued? 

4. How soon should the word drills be followed by reading sen¬ 
tences ? 

5. How long will it be before the child is able to read 100 words per 
minute ? 

6. What is the result of presenting words to children in the above 
suggested manner? Is there any increased interest? 

7. Do children like to learn words of this kind? 

8. Is there any evidence to show that such exercises are better 
than exclusive oral reading? 

9. Is the psychology of this method of presentation sound? 

Project 3 

Use of Haggerty Achievement Test, Sigma 1, in Measuring the Reading 
Ability of Children in the Primary Grades 

If it is at the first of the year, measure the second grade and com¬ 
pare it with the first year standard. Children will not be able to take 


READING 


(125) 275 


silent reading tests at the beginning of the first year. The rate of read¬ 
ing may be determined by allowing the children to begin at a certain 
point in the reader and read for a minute, then count the number of 
words read. 


Project 4 

Compare the silent and oral reading rates of two children in the 
second grade. Which is the greater? Why? 

Problem 4 

What Attention Should Be Given to Rate of Reading in the 

Intermediate Grades? 

While in the Intermediate Grades the child should develop a fast 
rate of reading accompanied by a high degree of comprehension. Ability 
to read swiftly and efficiently is needed in all work with books where 
the object is to read for information or instruction. Skill in rapid silent 
reading makes children efficient in geography, history, hygiene, and other 
content subjects. Experimental results show that increasing speed with¬ 
out sacrificing comprehension is possible in the Intermediate Grades. 

Types of exercises for this purpose are presented. In Intermediate 
Grades children are often found who, because of over emphasis in oral 
reading, are unable to read efficiently or rapidly. In this case the read¬ 
ing exercises should be in rapid silent reading rather than oral reading. 

Exercise 1 
Flash Exercise 

To break up the habit of reading word by word, phrase flashing 
exercises are recommended. Such exercises as the following taken from 
lessons in hygiene are recommended. 

(Leading Phrase) (Flash card) 


It is a good thing for the health 


To Drink Milk 


To Chew Your Food Well 


To Use a Tooth-Brush 
Every Day 





276 (126) 


READING 


The method of checking comprehension is to allow children to indi¬ 
cate the right answers by raising their hands or by some other appropri¬ 
ate sign. 

Exercise 2 
Action Exercise 

Material for these exercises may be taken from some other subject 
or developed as the need arises. 

(Leading Phrase) (Flash cards) 

Place your hands above your head 

to your right 
under your desk 

In this exercise comprehension is checked while speed is encouraged 
by the rate at which the cards are flashed. 

Exercise 3 
Reading Games 

It has been found that exercises in the form of games played by two 
pupils are effective for increasing rate and comprehension. 1 

Four sets of cards are prepared; namely, action cards, pretense 
cards, language response cards, and one-word response cards. Two chil¬ 
dren working together play the game. Directions for making these 
cards and for conducting the exercises may be found in the article cited 
below. 1 The subject matter may be taken from any content subject or 
developed as the need arises. 


Exercise 4 

Alternate Reading and Reproduction 

O’Brien reports marked increases in reading due to alternate reading 
and reproducing exercises. Directions for carrying out these exercises 
are found in the 20th Year Book, Nat’l Society for the Study of Educa¬ 
tion, pages 57-60. 

Exercise 5 

Developing Ability to Skim 

The ability to read rapidly for purposes of running down references, 
getting the main thought, finding answers to questions, and the like, is 
valuable for children in the grades as well as for adults. Children in the 
intermediate grades may be taught to skim so that by the sixth grade 
they can read at the rate of from 600 to 1000 words per minute when 
looking for answers to questions. 

One type of exercise is given here. Others will occur to teachers. 


^Oth Year Book. Part II. Pages 77-89. 




READING 


(127) 277 


The teacher will look up certain sentences in the text which answer 
questions. She formulates a question and then tells the pupils to begin 
at a certain point and read to find the answer. Each child raises his 
hand as he finds the answer to the question. The teacher checks for 
accuracy. The amount of time allowed determines whether the exercise 
shall be for rapid reading or for skimming. 

Exercise 6 

Room Graphs of Speed 

One of the most stimulating methods of arousing interest in children 
is keeping a room graph of speed. Each child is tested on material at 
frequent intervals and the number of words counted as his rate increases. 
These rates are entered on the room graph. The graph gives objective 
evidence of the child’s progress. Children are very much interested in 
increasing rate. Each child is encouraged to compete against himself. 

Suggestive Problems 

, 1. What is a particularly good rate in reading for children in the 
third grade, fourth grade and fifth grade? 

2. If a class is found to be very slow in reading, what should the 
teacher do ? 

3. How may the teacher prepare such cards as are needed for flash 
exercises ? 

4. From what sources may such material be drawn? 

5. How much time will the teacher give to preparation of such 
exercises ? 

6. Will reading of connected material be continued at the same time 
that such exercises are given? 

i 

7. Are such exercises good for use in Intermediate Grades ? 

Project 5 

Make some flash cards modeled on the above exercises. Try these 
cards out on the third, fourth, fifth and sixth grade children. Note care¬ 
fully their reaction, and indicate results. Keep careful record of any 
valuable suggestions you get from the exercises. 

References: 

Hoover: Motivated Drill Work in Silent Reading. 20th Year Book, 

Part II, pages 77-89. 


278 (128) 


READING 


O’Brien: Development of Speed in Silent Reading. 20th Year Book, 
Part II, pages 54-76. 

Gray: Principles of Method in Reading. 18th Year Book, Part II, 
pages 26-51. 

Germane and Germane: Part II. 

Stone: Chapter VIII. 


Problem 5 

What May Be Done to Increase Rate of Reading in the Upper Grades? 

By the end of the sixth year pupils should have developed a high 
rate of speed. If the children in the sixth year are found, when tested, 
to be slow in rate, the drills suggested above may be continued. The 
following exercises are suggested for increasing rate in this grade: 

1. Exercise in rapid silent reading as indicated in the preceding 
section, such as to find main thought. The child reproduces the thought 
orally or in writing. Material may be varied to suit the reader. 

2. Extensive rapid silent reading. Children may be given extensive 
articles to reproduce or report upon within a limited time. Rate of read¬ 
ing is fast because of the limited time allowed. The child must be 
checked for comprehension of what he has read. A library of extensive 
reading material should be furnished. 

Suggestive Problems 

1. What would you do in case you found a child in the sixth grade 
who read at the rate of only 40 words a minute? 

2. How great are the differences in rate of reading commonly found 
in the upper grades ? 

3. How does poor rate of reading affect the work of children in 
history or geography in the seventh and eighth grades? 

4. Would you promote from the eighth into the ninth grade children 
who do not read rapidly and efficiently? 

5. Is reading more or less important in the upper grades than in 
the lower? 

6. What devices can you think of to encourage extensive reading in 
the upper grades? 

7. How many library books should be furnished for reading pur¬ 
poses in the grammar grades? 

8. What proportion of time in upper grades should be spent in oral 
reading? In silent reading? 


READING 


(129) 279 


References: 

See above list. 

Bolenius: Teacher’s Manual; Introduction. 

Searson & Martin: Teacher’s Manual. Portions on Upper Grades. 

i • 

Problem 6 

What is Comprehension and How May It Be Improved? 

A high rate of reading without comprehension is useless. It does not 
matter how fast a child can read if he cannot understand what he has 
read. It is therefore necessary to place great emphasis upon comprehen¬ 
sion. 

Numerous devices have been invented to improve this factor in read¬ 
ing. Experiments show that it is possible to increase the percentage of 
comprehension and at the same time increase rate. As a general prin¬ 
ciple it is not permissible to influence rate at the expense of comprehen¬ 
sion. Fortunately, as a rule, the ability to read at a high rate goes hand 
in hand with good comprehension, but it is sometimes necessary to pay 
particular attention to increasing comprehension. For this purpose exer¬ 
cises are available. 

% 

References: 

• 

Klapper: Chapter III, pages 17-25. 

Briggs & Coffman: Chapter VII. 

Germane and Germane: Chapter III, Part II. 

Problem 7 

Comprehension in Primary Grades 

Gray emphasizes the fact that mastery of mechanics often precedes 
the ability to understand what is read. 1 This is due to an over-emphasis 
or oral reading in the primary grades. Emphasis upon silent reading in 
these grades will overcome the fault. 

Exercise 1 
Action Exercise 

This exercise is the same as the exercise for speed except that com¬ 
prehension may be stressed. The material for the exercises consists of 
flash cards containing such words as sit, stand, run, go, hop, dance, 
skip, etc. 

The teacher exercises particular care that the child take part in each 
exercise and is able to do without error the action suggested. Oral le- 
sponse is thus reinforced by motor activity. Children enjoy these exer¬ 
cises more than ordinary oral reading drills. 


il8th Year Book Part II, page 28. 




280 (130) 


READING 


Exercise 2 
The Opposite Test 

In the latter part of the first grade comprehension is increased by 
giving tests consisting of words to which the child may give the opposite. 
The following are suggestive words. Teachers will readily add more. 


Right 

Opposite 

Left. 

Front 

U 

Back. 

Black 

u 

White. 

Day 

u 

Night. 


Exercise 3 
Direction Exercise 

These exercises particularly emphasize accurate comprehension. The 
child’s action in following out the directions indicates his understanding. 
There are a great many possible exercises of this sort. Simple ones 
developed in the Primary Department of the Nebraska State Teachers 
College at Kearney are given here. 

Point to the North. 

Point to the East. 

Point to the West. 

Point to the South. 

Run to the window. 

Open the door. 

Stand by your chair. 

Special types of these exercises may be found in the references listed 
at the end of this section. 


Problem 8 

Comprehension in the Intermediate Grades 

Gray, in his article in the 20th Year Book, Part II, points out many 
individual reading defects of pupils in the intermediate grades. For a 
long time teachers have complained that children in these grades did not 
learn how to study. Part of the inefficiency of school work here is caused 
by the failure of children to read properly. Greene in the same volume 
shows how deficient is the comprehension of easy factual material by the 
children of these grades. Yoakam also reports the inefficient results due 
to a single reading of the content material of these years. 1 These studies 
emphasize the importance of comprehension in these grades. 

The following exercises are recommended for the correction of de¬ 
fects in comprehension in the middle grades. 


'See 20th Year Book, N. S. S. E., Part II. 



READING 


(131) 281 


Exercise 1 

Asking Questions on the Material Read 

This is an old device long used in oral reading. Its effect in increas¬ 
ing comprehension is well known. Numerous other exercises may be 
worked out by the teacher. In general, those exercises are best which 
have been experimentally tested out. 

Exercise 2 

Map Drills 

* 

Drill exercises, requiring for their answers definite location of places, 
may be used. These reading exercises may be connected up with the 
work of geography or history. Such an exercise as the following illus¬ 
trates the type. “If the largest amount of cotton is produced in Arizona, 
then find the region on the map of that state where it was raised. If not, 
locate the region in the United States where the most cotton is produced.” 

This direction exercise reveals at once whether or not the children 
understand the reading. Teachers will find such exercises very stimu¬ 
lating. 

Exercise 3 

Reading to Get a Summary of What is Read 

This exercise was recommended by Thorndike. Germane found that 
the method is valuable when summarizing is directed by specific prob¬ 
lems. 1 The child may proceed at first paragraph by paragraph; then 
longer units may be taken as skill becomes greater. 

Exercise 4 

Reading in Which Emphasis is Placed Upon Elements Upcn Which 

Meaning Depends 

Gray recommends discussing topic statements, relational words, the 
effect of modifying words, phrases, and the like. This is found effective 
in promoting ability of individual children who are backward in reading. 

Exercise 5 

Reading to Formulate Questions Which Material Answers 

Thorndike suggests that the child be directed to read paragraphs 
until he can formulate the questions which they answer. Compare the 
pupil’s questions with the questions previously prepared by the teacher. 

Exercise 6 

Reading to Make Graphs of Substance Read 

This is a check upon comprehension suitable for exercises in geog- 


J 20th Year Book, Part II, pages 102-113. 








282 (132) 


READING 


raphy or arithmetic. The child represents by drawings, diagrams, and 
graphs the facts presented in the article. The check upon comprehension 
is rigorous. 


Exercise 7 

Finding Pictures or Illustrative Material for Reading 

For directions as to the use of this exercise see 20th Year Book, 
Part II, page 159. 


Exercise 8 
Vocabulary Drills 

Gray recommends the use of word-study in case of children backward 
in reading. Prefixes, suffixes and word stems are studied. The effect 
of this work is to give the individual a larger vocabulary of meanings. 

References: 

O’Brien: 20th Year Book; Part II; Chapter I, pages 54-77. 

Greene: 20th Year Book; Part II; Chapter VIII, pages 114-127. 

Germane: 20th Year Book; Part II; Chapter VII, pages 102-114. 

Yoakam: 20th Year Book; ;Part II; Chapter VI, pages 90-107. 

Gray: 18th Year Book; Part II; Chapter II, pages 41-43. 

Germane and Germane: Chapters 12-16. 

Problem 9 

Comprehension in Grammar Grades 

If children in the intermediate grades have been properly trained 
in silent reading, they will not need to give so much attention to reading 
proper in the upper grades; but whenever they are found to be inefficient, 
drills outlined for intermediate grades may be continued. 

Experiments show that the ability to comprehend what has been 
read will increase throughout the grades. O’Brien’s experiments report 
as large an increase in comprehension in the upper grades as in the 
lower. 

Suggestive Exercises 

When children are found deficient in reading ability, but have no 
serious difficulties, reading results may be increased by 

1. Encouraging a large amount of reading. 

2. Emphasizing the accurate reporting of what is read. 


READING 


(133) 283 


Problem 10 

What Are the Other Factors in Silent Reading? 

1. Organization. 

Organization is the factor in reading which has not yet been much 
investigated. It is that ability to read material and reshape it so that 
when it is reproduced it assumes a different form. Power of oiganization 
is much needed by those who get material from different sources. The 
power of children to organize may be tested by the Courtis Organization 
Language Test, by S. A. Courtis, 82 Elliott Street, Detroit, Michigan. 

If the children are found to be poor in organization, attention should 
be given to such exercises as will improve this ability. Few exercises, 
to the knowledge of the writer, have yet been devised for this purpose. 

Germane and Germane: Chapter IV. 

2. Remembrance. 

Power to remember what is read is essential to all advancement 
and will increase the efficiency of reading. It should be possible to 
gather a great many suggestions for improving the memory from dif¬ 
ferent sources. Books on how to study are particularly recommended. 

Hall-Quest: Supervised Study. 

Watt: Economy in the Training of Memory. 

Whipple: How to Study Effectively. 

Germane and Germane: Chapter V. 

Project 6 
Testing Memory 

1. Prepare a simple paragraph of reading material and a test of 
short questions to accompany the paragraph. 

2. Give a group of children a test and then allow them to read 
material. 

3. Test again after reading material. 

4. Give test again after two or three weeks, not allowing children 
to re-read the paragraph in the meanwhile. 

5. Compare results and notice the effect of lapse of time on memory. 

Problem 11 

What is the Teacher to Do With Children in the Upper Grades 

Who Cannot Read Well? 

Children are often found in the fifth and sixth grades or even higher 


284 (134) 


READING 


who are unable to read simple material with any efficiency. The prob¬ 
lem of what to do with these children is felt by all elementary teachers. 
Reading the following article will give some valuable suggestions. 

Suggestive Problems 

What may be done with the child whose vocabulary is deficient? 
How may comprehension be improved? 

What is “word-blindness” ? 

What is the effect of bad eye movements in reading? 

How may a child who does not understand meanings of words be 
helped ? 

References: 

Gray: 20th Year Book; Part II. 

Germane and Germane: Chapters VII-VIII. 

Problem 12 

What Kinds of Material Are Suitable for Silent Reading? 

Project 7 

Examinations of Different Silent Readers 

Examine a copy of a Bolenius Reader. 

Examine a copy of a Lewis & Rowland Reader. 

Examine a copy of a Searson & Martin Reader. 

Examine a copy of a Lincoln Reader. 

Reference: 

Germane and Germane: Chapter X. 

Suggestive Problems 

What type of materials is particularly fitted for use in silent read¬ 
ing? 

What is the advantage of printed questions at the beginning of the 
reading lesson? 

Should factual or literary material be used in silent reading drills ? 
What are the chief points of advantage of the texts examined ? 


READING 


(135) 285 


PART III—THE TEACHING OF ORAL READING 

The aim of this section is to introduce the beginning teacher to the 
principles of method in oral reading. It is recognized that in actual 
practice the teacher will probably teach oral and silent reading simul¬ 
taneously. If possible, a double period, one devoted to silent reading and 
one to oral reading, is recommended for the first two grades. The amount 
of oral reading should then begin to decrease rapidly until, in the upper 
grades, the chief emphasis is upon silent reading. Some writers would 
recommend a large amount of silent reading from the start, but in the 
present state of uncertainty or lack of evidence, it is perhaps better to 
continue the teaching of oral reading by some well-known and understood 
method and to parallel such teaching with silent reading exercises as 
indicated in the preceding section. 

Needs in Life for Oral Reading 

The needs for oral reading in life outside the school are constantly 
growing less frequent and crucial. The following main types are easily 
recognized. 

1. Reading to give pleasure to others. 

2. Reading to transmit information. 

3. Reading to aid comprehension of difficult passages. 

4. Reading for vocational purposes such as checking invoices, and 
the like. 

The third of these is made unnecessary if the emphasis is placed upon 
silent reading from the first. The last is vocational in nature and is of 
rather doubtful value in the elementary school because contingent on 
so many uncertain factors. Types 1 and 2 above are of primary im¬ 
portance although the present day commercialization of amusement is 
rapidly driving both types out of the home. 

Reference: 

Searson & Martin: Teacher’s Manual; Chapter XXI. 

Factors in Oral Reading 

Consideration of such factors as time, grouping, emphasis, force, 
quality and rhetorical effects are of value to adult readers. It is doubt¬ 
ful, however, if, as taught, these factors generally function in the ele¬ 
mentary school to produce good readers, although they may be of use 
to a teacher in analyzing faulty oral reading habits of the pupils. 


286 (136) 


READING 


Factors to be emphasized with the pupil are: 

Rate 

Articulation 

Pronunciation 

Expression. 

Reference: 

Briggs & Coffman: Chapter XVI. 

Literature and Oral Reading 

Oral reading is particularly bound up with the study of literature. 
In the literature period much reading of poetry and prose aloud may take 
place. It is important here to keep in mind this fact—the pupil should 
read something he wants to read to somebody for some purpose, gener¬ 
ally, the giving of pleasure. 

In selection of material, the teacher will be guided quite largely by 
the literary reader, supplemented by such story material and books as 
are available in the school library. A suggestive list of literary selec¬ 
tions suitable for study in the various grades is presented in this section. 

The teacher is warned against over-minute analysis of literary selec¬ 
tions. It must be remembered that poetry is to be read aloud and other 
literary selections are to be read, understood, appreciated and enjoyed in 
a measure commensurate with the abilities and needs of the child at 
any given age. The test of an effective oral rendition is whether or not 
it “gets over” to the audience. The oral reading class should generally 
be trying to read effectively for someone else who is listening. This 
means less emphasis upon reading technicalities and similar exercises 
and more emphasis upon understanding. 

It also argues against the type of reading exercises made up solely 
of study of words and expression without attention to the thought. There 
is a high relationship between the ability to understand what is read 
and the ability to reproduce it orally with effect. Emphasis upon efficient 
silent reading is reflected in increased efficiency in oral reading. 

Suggestive Problems 

1. What is the proper division of time between oral and silent read¬ 
ing? 

2. Could you dispense with oral reading entirely? 

3. What is the audience attitude? 

4. Do teachers generally talk too much about a reading lesson? 

5. Is it necessary that the study of words precede a reading lesson ? 


READING 


(137) 287 


6. Which should come first, oral or'silent reading of a literary selec¬ 
tion which is to be presented to a class ? 

7. What types of literature are fitted for silent reading? 

8. Would you use literature for silent reading drills? 

9. Is it ever permissible to sing in an oral reading period ? 

10. How much attention would you pay to pronunciation? Would 
you interrupt a child to correct faulty pronunciation? 

References: 

Hosic, J. F., Essentials of Literature. 14th Year Book, National 
Society for Study of Education, Part I, pp. 147-151. 

McClintock, P. L., Literature in the Elementary School, pp.1-15. 
Sherman & Reed. Chapter XVII. 

Stone: Chapters III-VI. 


SECTION I 

A STUDY OF PRIMARY READING METHODS 

Problem 1 

What Are the Basic Methods of Teaching Primary Reading? 

The young teacher should be led to appreciate that all good methods 
have certain similarities and are based upon correct psychological prin¬ 
ciples. A study of the sections in the following texts devoted to this 
problem will bring light. 


Suggestive Problems 

1. Are all methods used equally efficient? 

2. What types of methods are now considered sounder than others ? 

3. Would you recommend teaching primary reading by the alphabet 
method ? 

4. What is the word and sentence method? 

5. What are the mechanics of oral reading? 

6. How may the mechanics be mastered ? 

References: 

Sherman & Reed: Chapter IX; pages 83-103. 

Stone: Chapter III. 

Klapper: Chapter V; pages 36-57. 

Briggs & Coffman: Chapters III, IV and V. 


288 (138) 


READING 


Problem 2 

What Are the Main Features of the Leading Systems of Reading? 

Study the manuals of the basic reading systems used in your own and 
neighboring schools. 

1. The Baker and Thorndike Method. 

2. The Beacon Method. 

3. The Searson & Martin Method. 

4. The Ward Method. 

5. The Winston Method. 

Suggestive Problems 

1. Compare one of these systems with one other. Note the like¬ 
nesses and the differences. 

2. Which of the systems is essentially a story system? 

3. Which makes great use of the rhyme? 

4. Do any of the systems emphasize silent reading? 

5. Compare the pedagogical features of the systems. Which is the 
most teachable ? Why ? 

References: 

Klapper: Chapter VI; pages 58-81. 

Ward Manual: Chapters explaining the method. 

Beacon Manual: Chapters explaining the method. 

Aldine Manual: Chapters explaining the method. 

Winston Manual: Chapters explaining the method. 

4 

Problem 3 

What Phonic System Should Be Used in Beginning Reading? 

i A v 

Suggestive Problems 

1. Should phonics be taught at all? 

2. Is there anything to show that phonic systems result in increas¬ 
ing efficiency in reading? 

3. Should phonics be taught during the reading period? 

4. What would you do with individuals who can read without 
phonics? 

5. For what type of child are phonics most necessary? 


READING 


(139) 289 


References: 

Klapper: Chapter VIII; pages 102-123. 

Theisen: 20th Year Book; Part II, Chapter I. 

Briggs & Coffman: Chapter IX; Chapter VIII (Word drills). 

Gray: 18th Year Book; Part II; pages 31-38. 

Project 1 

Study Beacon and Ward Manuals to note the differences in the sys¬ 
tems of phonics. 

Problem 4 

What Types of Materials Are Suitable for Primary Reading? 


Suggestive Problems 

1. Is it permissible to use materials other than story material in 
primary grades? 

2. Are Mother Goose rhymes the only suitable material for primary 
grades ? 

3. What is the effect of repetition of the rhymes in prose form as 
reading drill exercises? 

4. What would you think of a primary reader of health material, 
of facts about the store, shop, farm, etc. ? 

• ' 

References: 

Klapper: Chapter VII; pages 82-99. 

Theisen: 20th Year Book; Chapter I. 

Briggs & Coffman: Chapters IV, V, XII, XIII, XIX. 


Project 1 

1. Study the different readers available and compare material used. 
Which is best? Why? 

2. Prepare a reading lesson from the method reader used in your 
school. 

3. Prepare a reading lesson made up of the child’s daily experi¬ 
ences. 

Project 2 

1. Study the manual and primer of the series of readers used in 
your system. Write plans for a series of lessons in beginning reading. 


290 (140) 


READING 


2. Discuss the preparation and presentation of a lesson. 

3. Will you have phonics and reading at the same time? 

4. Will you have word drills and reading at the same time? 

5. What proportion of the time will be spent in actual reading? 

Problem 5 

What is the Place of Dramatization in Primary Grades? 

1. Is there any relationship between dramatization in literature and 
action and direction exercises in silent reading? 

2. How much dramatization would you have? 

3. What kinds of selections are particularly suited for dramatiza¬ 
tion? 

4. Choose for dramatization a selection from the method reader used 

in your school. * 

% 

References: 

Briggs & Coffman: Chapter X; pages 92-104. 

Sherman & Reed: See Index. 

SECTION II 

STUDY OF ORAL READING IN THE INTERMEDIATE GRADES 

Problem 1 

What Are the Principles of Method of Teaching Oral Reading as 
Discovered by Scientific Investigation? 

1. When does accomplishment in oral reading increase most rap¬ 
idly? 

2. When does rate of oral reading cease to increase? 

3. When does the ability to recognize words increase most rapidly? 

4. Is the mastery of mechanics of reading always a sign of ability 
to read? 

5. When does the rate of silent reading surpass rate of oral read¬ 
ing ? 

6. When is ability to comprehend increasing most rapidly? 

7. When is comprehension of simple statement of fact developed? 


READING 


(141) 291 


8. Give suggestions for improvement of oral reading ability in 
grades four to six. 

Read: 

Gray, W. S.: 18th Year Book; Part II, pages 26-38. 

Problem 2 

What Attention Should Be Given to the Mechanics of Reading in 

These Grades? 

Suggestive Questions 

1. How soon should dictionary drill begin? 

2. Would you have word drills in grade three? 

3. What use should be made of diacritical marks? 

4. What would you do with a child who could not pronounce words ? 

5. Is pronunciation necessarily a sign of comprehension? 

6. What is the relative emphasis to be placed upon meaning and 
mechanics of reading? 

References: 

Klapper: Chapter IX. Reading in the Intermediate Grades (3-6). 
Briggs & Coffman: Chapters XVI and XVII. 

Sherman & Reed: Chapters XII, XIII, XIV, XVII. 

Problem 3 

How Should the Reading Lesson in Intermediate Grades be Presented? 

Suggestive Problems 

1. What is the problem of reading in the intermediate grades? 

2. What preparation must the teacher make for presenting a lesson ? 

3. How may the class be prepared? 

4. What are the possible procedures in a reading lesson? 

5. What is audience attitude? 

6. What qualities of reading should be attended to? 

7. How may the child best be corrected ? 

8. How may the teacher conduct an extensive reading lesson? 

9. What application of the socialized recitation may be made to 
reading? 

References: 

Sherman & Reed: Chapter X. 

Briggs & Coffman: Chapter XXV. 

Klapper: Chapter IX; pages 128-135. 


292 (142) 


READING 


Project 1 

1. Write out plans for assignment of lesson in oral reading in any 
grade from three to six. 

2. Discuss assignment from the standpoint of principles set forth 
above. 

Problem 4 

What Reading Materials Are Suitable for Children in the Middle Grades? 

Suggestive Questions 

1. What kinds of literature are good for oral reading in the middle 
grades ? 

2. Would you have pupils read exclusively one type of literature? 

3. What place have myths and legends? 

4. How much extensive reading should be done in these grades and 
how may it be encouraged? 

5. How will you influence home reading? 

6. Discuss the preparation and presentation of a literary master¬ 
piece. 

References: 

Briggs & Coffman: Chapters XVIII and XX. 

Klapper: Chapter IX. 

Sherman & Reed: Chapter XI. 

\ 

SECTION III 

A STUDY OF ORAL READING IN THE UPPER GRADES 

Problem 1 

What Attention Must Be Paid to Mechanics in These Grades? 

Problem 2 

What Subject Matter Should Be Used? 

References: 

Klapper: Chapter X. Reading in Last Two Years of the Elementary 
School. 

Briggs & Coffman: Chapter XXI. 

Sherman & Reed: Chapter XIII; Use of Dictionary. XIV Articula¬ 
tion (Exercise in correcting faulty articulation). 


READING 


(143) 293 


Problem 3 

What Should the Teacher Know About the Presentation of a Literary 

Masterpiece? 

Suggestive Problems 

1. What can literature do for the child? 

2. Why are masterpieces more desirable than school readers? 

3. What preparation should be made for the study of masterpieces? 

4. How shall the first reading be done? 

5. How shall the second reading be conducted? 

6. What use shall be made of the selection? What application? 

References: 

Klapper: Chapter X, pages 159-204. 

Briggs & Coffman: Chapter XXI. 

Carpenter, Baker & Scott: The Teaching of English; pages 155-187. 
Hosic, J. F.: Elementary Course in English; pages 42-53. 

The following list of literary selections for elementary schools repre¬ 
sents a selection based upon the best usage in American cities at the 
time of compilation in 1918. The list is given the teacher for guidance 
in selecting literary materials for reading and memorization. 

LIST OF LITERARY SELECTIONS FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 


GRADE ONE 
Poetry 


Author 

Title of Selection 

Stevenson 

The Wind 

Longfellow 

Hiawatha’s Childhood 

Smith 

America 

Stevenson 

The Swing 

Taylor, Jane 

Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star 

Rosetti 

Who Has Seen the Wind? 

Boats That Sail on Rivers 

Stevenson 

Bed in Summer 

Tennyson 

What Does Little Birdie Say? 

Alexander 

All Things Bright and Beautiful 

MacDonald 

Baby 

Stevenson 

The Rain 

0 

Field 

The Rockaby Lady 

Brown 

The Little Plant 

Stevenson 

Autumn Fires 

Sherman 

The Dewdrop 


294 ( 144 ) 


READING 



Prose 

Fables 

Aesop 

The Sun and the Wind 

The Crow and the Pitcher 

The Lion and the Mouse 

The Dog and His Shadow 

The Boy Who Cried Wolf 

The Fox and the Grapes 

The Wind and the Sun 

Fairy Tales and Folk Tales 

English 

Little Red Riding Hood 

Grimm 

Cinderella 

Bremer Town Musicians 
Shoemaker and the Elves 

Modern-Unknown 

Gingerbread Boy 

English 

Jack and the Beanstalk 

Richards 

The Pig Brother 

Anderson 

The Fir Tree 

Accumulative Tales 

Chadwick 

The Little Red Hen 

Blaisdell 

Chicken Little 

Bigham 

Stories of Mother Goose Village 

Cook 

Nature Myths 

Brooks 

Stories of Red Children 

Wiltze 

Folk Lore Stories 

Poulsson 

In the Child’s World 

GRADE TWO 

Poetry 

For Memorizing 

Stevenson 

My Shadow 

Ingelow, Jean 

Seven Times One 

Field, Eugene 

Winken, Blynken and Nod 

Larcom, Lucy 

The Brown Thrush 

Sherman, F. D. 

The Daisies 

Stevenson 

The Land of Story Books 

Kingsley 

The Lost Doll 

Allingham 

The Fairies 

Cary 

Suppose 

Child, Lydia 

Thanksgiving Day 

Who Stole the Bird’s Nest? 

Houghton 

Good Night and Good Morning 
Lady Moon 

Stevenson 

The Land of Counterpane 

Thaxter 

Little Gustava 


READING 


(145) 295 


Prose 

For Class Use 


Fables 

Aesop The Town Mouse and the Field Mouse 

The Fox and the Crow 
The Dove and the Ant 


Fairy Tales and Folk Tales 

Grimm 

Anderson 

Bryant 

Grimm 

Barrie 

Grimm 

Harris 

Bryant 

Myths 

Hawthorne 

Greek 

Hawthorne 

Norse 

Jackson, H. H. 


Hansel and Gretel 
The Ugly Duckling 
Epaminondas and His Auntie 
The Sleeping Beauty 
Peter Pan 
Rumplestiltskin 
Tom Thumb 
The Tar Baby 

The Little Jackal and the Alligator 

The Golden Touch 

Arachne 

Pandora 

Baucis and Philemon 
Why the Sea is Salt 
Legend of St. Christopher 


Chance 

Smith 

Bigham 

Cox 

Dutton 


For Reading by Teacher 

Little Folks of Many Lands 
Eskimo Stories 
Merry Animal Tales 
Brownie Book 
In Field and Pasture 


Longfellow 

Lear 

Moore, Clement 
Hogg, James 
Coolidge, Susan 
Emerson 
Aldrich 

Brooks, Phillip 
Bunner 


GRADE THREE 
Poetry 

For Memorizing 

The Children’s Hour 
The Owl and the Pussy Cat 
A Visit from St. Nicholas 
A Boy’s Song 

How the Leaves Came Down 
The Mountain and the Squirrel 
Marjorie’s Almanac 
0, Little Town of Bethlehem 
One, Two, Three 


296 (146) 


READING 


Stevenson 

Where Go the Boats? 

Field 

Norse Lullaby 

Allingham 

Wishing 

Vandegrift 

The Sandman 

Longfellow 

. Christmas Bells 

Cary, A. 

November 

Prose 

For Class Use 

Kipling 

Rikki-Tikki-Tavi 

Anon. 

Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp 

Baldwin 

Bruce and the Spider 

Collodi 

Pinnochie 

Kipling 

How the Camel Got His Hump 

The Cat That Walked by Himself 

Poulsson 

Little Hero of Harlem 

Greek Myth 

Proserpine 

Defoe 

Robinson Crusoe 

For Reading by Teacher 

Harris 

Uncle Remus 

Bible 

The Story of Ruth 

Scudder 

Fable and Folk Stories 

Eggleston 

Story of Great Americans for Little 
Americans 

Craik 

Adventures of a Brownie 

Cook 

Nature Myths and Stories 

Wilson 

Myths of the Red Children 

Blaisdell 

Child Life in Tales and Fables 

Seri 

In Fable Land 

GRADE FOUR 

Poetry 

For Memorizing 

Browning 

The Pied Pip*’ of Hamlin 

Jackson, H. H. 

October’s Bright Blue Weather 
September 

Tennyson 

Sweet and Low 

Longfellow 

The Village Blacksmith 

Longfellow 

Arrow and the Song 

Miller, Emily 

The Blue Bird 

Thaxter 

The Sandpiper 

Key 

The Star Spangled Banner 

Bible 

Psalm 23 

Longfellow 

Birds of Killingworth 


READING 


(147) 297 


MacDonald 

Bryant 

Lowell 

Browning 


K ipling 

Greek Myth 
English 

Kipling 

Anderson 

Anon. 

Baldwin 

Carrol 

Kipling 

Sewel 

Wiggins 

Craik 

Grimm 

Kingsley 

Andrews 

Eggleston 

Bass 


Browning 

Tennyson 

Longfellow 

Whittier 

Hemans 

Longfellow 

Bryant 

Whittier 

Carlyle 

Bryant 

Longfellow 

Morris 

Longfellow 

Whittier 


The Wind and the Moon 
Robert of Lincoln 
The Fountain 
A Child’s Thought of God 

Pros© 

For Class Study 

Mowgli’s Brothers 
Kaa’s Hunting 
White Seal 

Jason and the Golden Fleece 
Damon and Pythias 
King Arthur Stories 

For Library Reading 

* Just So Stories 
Fairy Tales 

Arabian Night’s Entertainments 
Fifty Famous Stories Retold 
Old Greek Stories 
Alice in Wonderland 
The Jungle Book 
» Black Beauty 

Birds Christmas Carol 
The Little Lame Prince 
Fairy Tales 
Water Babies 
Seven Little Sisters 
Stories of American Life 
Stories of Pioneer Life 

GRADE FIVE 
Poetry 

For Memorizing 

Pippa’s Songs 
The Brook 
Hiawatha 
Barefoot Boy 

The Landing of the Pilgrims 
Excelsior 

. The Planting of the Apple Tree 
The Corn Song 
Today 

The Gladness of Nature 
The Day is Done 
Woodman Spare That Tree 
The Ship of State 
In School Days 


298 (148) 


READING 


Homer (Church) 

Spiri 

Carrol 

Mabie 

Pyle 

Seton 

Ruskin 

Hawthorne 

Pyle 

Dodge 

Hawthorne 

De La Rammee 

Wyss 

Ouida 

Seton 

Cooper 

Tappan 

Spiri 

Clark 

Kingsley 

Long 

Monroe 


Anon. 

Lamb 

Tolstoi 

Irving 

Scott 

Burroughs 


Hunt 

Longfellow 

Emerson 

Bennett 

Wordsworth 

Longfellow 

Lowell 


Prose 

For Class Study 
The Illiad 
Heydi 

Through the Looking Glass 
Norse Stories 

Story of King Arthur and His Knights 
Lobo Rag and Vixen 

For Library Reading 

King of the Golden River 
The Wonderbook 
Adventures of Robin Hood 
Hans Brinker 
Tanglewood Tales 
The Nurenberg Stove 
Swiss Family Robinson 
Dog of Flanders 
Wild Animals I Have Known 
The Last of the Mohicans 
American Hero Stories 
Moni the Goat Boy 
The Story of Ulysses 
Greek Heroes 
Wilderness Ways 
Flamingo Feathers 


GRADE SIX 
Prose 

For Class Use 

Arabian Nights—Sinbad, the Sailor 
The Wanderings of Ulysses 
Tales 

Rip Van Winkle 

Raleigh’s Cloak—Kenilworth 

Squirrels and Other Fur-Bearers 

Poetry 

For Memorizing 

Abou Ben Adhem 
Paul Revere’s Ride 
The Concord Hymn 
The Flag Goes By 
The Daffodils 
The Bell of Atri 
The First Snowfall 


READING 


(149) 299 


Holmes 

Old Ironsides 

Longfellow 

The Builders 

Aldrich 

Before the Rain 

Browning 

How They Brought the Good News 

Cary, A. 

Nobility 

Wolfe 

The Burial of Sir John Moore 

Tennyson 

The Bugle Song 

Longfellow 

The Psalm of Life 

For Library Reading 

Stockton 

Fanciful Tales 

Alcott 

Little Men—Little Women 

Mark Twain 

Prince and Pauper 

Hawthorne 

Grandfather’s Chair 

Eggleston 

The Hoosier School Boy 

Swift 

Gulliver’s Travels 

Gueber 

Story of the English 

Story of the Greeks 

Hawthorne 

Twice Told Tales 

Blanchen 

Birds Every Child Should Know 

Aldrich 

Story of a Bad Boy 

Blackmore 

Lorna Doone 

Wallace 

Ben Hur 

Marryat 

Midshipman Easy 

Burnett 

The Secret Garden 

Jewett 

Betty Leicester 

Stowe 

Uncle Tom’s Cabin 

GRADE SEVEN 

Poetry 

For Class Study 

Longfellow 

Evangeline 

Courtship of Miles Standish 

Finch 

Columbus 

Tennyson 

The Blue and the Gray 

Sir Galahad 

Browning 

Herve Riel 

Macaulay 

Horatius 

For Memorizing 

Holmes 

The Chambered Nautilus 

Tennyson 

The Charge of the Light Brigade 

Drake 

The American Flag 

Longfellow 

The Building of the Ship 

Holmes 

The Deacon’s Masterpiece 

Emerson 

The Snowstorm 

Lowell 

Heritage 




300 ( 150 ) 


READING 


Homer (Church) 

Prose 

For Class Study 

The Odyssey 

Van Dyke 

The Other Wise Man 

Dickens 

The First Christmas Tree 
Christmas Carol 

Hawthorne 

The Great Stone Face 

Irving 

The Sketch Book 

Lamb 

For Library Reading 

Tales from Shakespeare 

Stevenson 

Treasure Island 

Kipling 

Captains Courageous 

Cooper 

The Spy 

Dickens 

Christmas Stories 

Roosevelt 

David Copperfield 

Stories of the Great West 

Mark Twain 

Tom Sawyer 

Martineau 

Huckleberry Finn 

Peasant and Prince 

Bennett 

Master Skylark 

London 

The Call of the Wild 

Wiggins 

Rebecca 

Eggleston 

The Hoosier Schoolmaster 

Alcott 

The Old-Fashioned Girl 

Baldwin 

Discovery of the Old Northwest 

Du Chaillou 

Story of Roland 

The Land of the Long Night 

Whittier 

GRADE EIGHT 

Poetry 

For Class Study 

Snowbound 

Lowell 

Vision of Sir Launfal 

Scott 

Lady of the Lake 

Shakespeare 

Merchant of Venice 

Arnold 

Sohrab and Rustum 

Holmes 

The Last Leaf 

Whitman 

For Memorizing 

0, Captain, My Captain 

Kipling 

Recessional 

Howe, Julia Ward 

Battle Hymn of the Republic 

Tennyson 

Crossing the Bar 

Read 

Sheridan’s Ride 


READING 


(151) 301 ; 


Bryant 

Scott 

Tennyson 

Shelley 


Scott 

Burroughs 

Franklin 

Dickens 

Irving 

Stevenson 

Hugo 

Hughes 

Poe 

Goldsmith 


To a Waterfowl 
Breathes There a Man 
Ring Out Wild Bells 
The Cloud 

Prose 

For Class Study 
Ivanhoe 
Birds and Bees 
Autobiography 
Tale of Two Cities 
Legend of Sleepy Hollow 
Kidnapped 
The Theft of Silver 
Tom Brown at Rugby 
The Gold Bug 
The Vicar of Wakefield 


Hale 

Stevenson 

Lincoln 

Kingsley 

Hughes 

Dana 

Wiggins 

Warner 

Burroughs 

Howells 

Cooper 

Lodge and Roosevelt 

Tappan 

Bullfinch 

Tarbell 

Parkman 

Washington, Booker T. 


For Library Reading 

A Man Without a Country 
Treasure Island 
Gettysburg Address 
Westward Ho! 

Tom Brown’s School Days 
Two Years Before the Mast 
Story of Patsy 
Hunting of the Deer 
Afoot and Afloat 
A Boy’s Town 
The Deerslayer 

Hero Tales from American History 

In the Days of Alfred the Great 

Age of Chivalry 

Life of Lincoln 

Conspiracy of Pontiac 

Up from Slavery 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Silent Reading (Essential Books): 

1. Klapper: Teaching Children to Read; Appleton, New York, 1914. 

2. Briggs & Coffman: Reading in Our Public Schools; Row, Peter¬ 
son & Co., Chicago, Ill. 1911. 

3. Gray, 18th Year Book. Nat’l Society for the Study of Education. 
Part II. 1919. 


302 (152) 


READING 


4. 19th Year Book. Part I. Public School Publishing Co., Bloom¬ 
ington, Ill. 1920. 

5. 20th Year Book. Parts I and II. Public School Publishing Co., 
Bloomington, Ill. 1921. 

6. Bolenius: Teacher’s Manual to Silent and Oral Reading. Hough¬ 
ton Mifflin Co. 1919. 

7. Lewis & Rowland: Silent Readers. The John C. Winston Co., 
Chicago. 1920. 

8. Searson & Martin: Teacher’s Manual. University Publishing 
Co., Lincoln, Nebr. 1919. 

9. Stone, C. R.: Silent and Oral Reading, Houghton Mifflin Co. 
1922. 

10. Germane and Germane: Silent Reading. Row, Peterson & Co. 
1922. 

11. Watkins, Emma: How to Teach Silent Reading to Beginners. 
A. P. Lippincott Co. 1921. 

Oral Reading (Essential Books): 

1. Sherman & Reed: Essentials of Teaching Reading. University 
Publishing Co. 1914. 

2. Klapper: Teaching Children to Read. Appleton. 1914. 

3. Briggs & Coffman: Reading in Our Public Schools. 1911. 

4. Gray, W. S.: 18th Year Book; Part II; Nat’l Society for the 
Study of Education. Public School Pub. Co. 1919. 

5. Tinley: First Steps in Reading. University Publishing Co. 

Other References: 

1. Sawyer: Five Messages to Teachers of Primary Reading. Rand, 
McNally & Co., Chicago, Ill. 

2. Jenkins: Reading in the Primary Grades. Houghton Mifflin 
Co., Chicago. 

3. Arnold: Reading and How to Teach It. Silver, Burdette & Co., 
Chicago. 

4. Clark: How to Teach Reading. Scott, Foresman & Co. 1903. 

5. Bolenius: Teacher’s Manual. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1919. 


READING 


s (153) 303 

6. Searson & Martin: Teacher’s Manual. University Pub. Co., 
Lincoln, Nebr. 1919. 

7. Manual for Progressive Readers. Silver Burdette & Co., Chi¬ 
cago, Ill. 

8. Manual for Elson School Readers. Scott, Foresman & Co., Chi¬ 
cago, Ill. 

» 

9. Manual for Aldine School Readers. Newson & Co., Chicago. 

10. Manual for Beacon School Readers. Ginn & Co., Chicago. 

Literature 

Essential References: 

1. Carpenter, Baker & Scott: The Teaching of English. Macmil¬ 
lan Co. 

2. McClintock: Literature in the Elementary School. University 
of Chicago Press. 

Other References: 

1. Bryant: How to Tell Stories to Children. Houghton Mifflin Co., 
Chicago. 

2. Sherman: Elements of Literature and Composition. University 
Publishing Co., Lincoln. 

3. Grade Poetry Readers. Charles E. Merrill & Co., Chicago. 

4. Stevenson: A Child’s Garden of Verses. Rand, McNally & Co., 
Chicago. 

5. Penniman: School Poetry Book. D. C. Heath & Co., Chicago. 


304 (154) 


READING 


Reading 

Course B 


INTRODUCTION 

The following- course in reading is based on Sherman & Reed’-s 
“Essentials of Teaching Reading” and Tinley’s “First Steps in Reading”, 
supplemented mainly from Klapper, “Teaching Children to Read”, and 
Briggs & Coffman, “Reading in Public Schools”. The work of the first 
four weeks is supplemented to some extent from Sherman’s “Elements of 
Literature and Composition” and Clark’s, “How to Teach Reading in the 
Public Schools”. But one or two copies of these books will be needed, 
however, for reference, depending upon the size of the class. 

The instructors should become thoroughly familiar with the use of 
lesson plans suggested by the course, and should prepare for the theory 
and application of the same by adapting them to their own assignments 
throughout the course. Student teachers learn more from class room 
procedure in the course of instruction than from a detached ideal theo¬ 
retically approached. The principle of the socialized recitation should be 
used as early in the course as there is a basis established that will per¬ 
mit economy of time. This is a most important type of recitation and 
should be established by class room procedure rather than as an educa¬ 
tional theory. 

The selections for memorizing are given in such numbers that mem¬ 
bers of the class may have different assignments. Some of the shorter 
ones should be memorized by all, especially those of Robert Louis Steven¬ 
son. Each member of the class should memorize not less than one short 
and one long poem a week. As a means of ready reference for the se¬ 
curing of these and other memory gems the teacher is referred to and 
should have for reference a set of “Graded Poetry Readers”, and “Child’s 
Garden of Verses” by Stevenson. References by figures only are the 
volumes of Graded Poetry Readers. Selection of the memory gems after 
the first month of the course is left to the teacher. Only good standard 
pieces of literature should be used. 

In using the text it is not intended that all the questions for review 
should be discussed. These contain the essence of the chapter and serve 
as guide to the pupils in studying the lesson. Generally it will suffice to 
discuss those that need more light. The outlines at the close of the 
chapters cited in the Sherman & Reed text are to be considered as the 
“Outline of the Problem”, and the questions at the close of the various 
chapters as “Related Problems”. “Related Problems” are given in the 
text of the course only where it is thought best to call attention to prob¬ 
lems not included in Sherman & Reed, or when it is thought best to fur- 



READING 


(155) 305 


ther emphasize subject matter in the text or to attack it from a new 
angle. It is a good plan to have the pupils prepare to write the outline of 
the chapter. Occasionally a few minutes may be taken for the repro¬ 
duction of this outline from memory before beginning the discussion. 

The outline of authors is given to assist the pupils in securing a cor¬ 
rect localization of the writers in point of time, as well as a view of their 
relative rank. It will not be necessary to spend time discussing it, ex¬ 
cept as it comes in naturally with selections studied. 


AMERICAN AUTHORS 

I. Colonial period. (1607-1765.) 

« 

John Eliot, Cotton Mather, Jonathan Edwards. 

II. Revolutionary period. (1765-1789.) 

a. Prose Writers: Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, James 

Madison, Alexander Hamilton, John Adams. 

b. Poets: John Trumbull, Francis Hopkinson. 

c. Orators: Patrick Henry, Josiah Quincy. 

III. Period of the Republic. (1789 to the present time.) 

i. National beginnings. (1789-1815.) 

a. Poets: Francis Scott Key, Joseph Hopkinson. 

b. Biographers: John Marshall, William Wirt. 

c. Essayists: Thomas Paine, Noah Webster. 

d. Orators: Fisher Ames, John Randolph. 

ii. Golden Age. (1815-1870.) 

a. Poets: William Cullen Bryant, Joseph Rodman Drake, 
Fitz-Greene Halleck, Edgar Allen Poe, John Greenleaf 
Whittier, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Alice and Phoebe 
Cary. 

b. Historians: William H. Prescott, George Bancroft, John 
Lothrop Motley. 

c. Essayists: Washington Irving, Ralph Waldo Emerson, 
James Russell Lowell, Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

d. Humorists: Charles F. Browne (“Artemus Ward”), David 
R. Locke. 

e. Orators: Daniel Webster, Edward Everett, Henry Ward 
Beecher, Wendell Phillips. 

f. Novelists: James Fennimore Cooper, Nathaniel Hawthorne, 
Harriet Beecher Stowe. 


306 (156) 


READING 


iii. Present Age. (1870-to present time.) 

a. Poets: Thomas Bailey Aldrich, Sidney Lanier, Celia Thax- 
ter, Walt Whitman, Eugene Field, James Whitcomb Riley. 

b. Historians: John Bach McMaster, John Fiske, Theodore 
Roosevelt, Edward Eggleston. 

c. Essayists: John Burroughs, Edward Everett Hale, George 
William Curtis, Charles Dudley Warner, Hamilton Wright 
Mabie. 

d. Humorists: Samuel L. Clements (“Mark Twain”), Rob¬ 
ert J. Burdette. 

e. Orators: James G. Blaine, William Jennings Bryan. 

f. Biographers: John Hay, Ulysses S. Grant, Julian Haw¬ 
thorne. 

g. Novelists: William D. Howells, Henry James, Frank R. 
Stockton, Mary E. Wilkins, Lewis Wallace, Helen Hunt 
Jackson, Francis Bret Harte, George W. Cable, Thomas 
Nelson Page, James Lane Allen. 

ENGLISH AUTHORS 

No race is as rich in literary material as the English speaking race. 
The outline of English authors as given below is merely suggestive in 
familiarizing the student with some of the outstanding artists and their 
time. 

I. From Beginnings to the Norman Conquest—700-1066 A. D. 

a. Poets: “The Beowulf” 

Cynnewulf 

b. Historians: Beede, Boethius. 

c. Prose Writers: Alfred. 

II. Norman Conquest to Shakespeare—1066-1564 A. D. 

a. Poets: Chaucer, Langland, Gower. 

b. Prose Writers: Mallory, Caxton. 

c. Historians: Goeffrey of Monmouth. 

III. The Age of Shakespeare to the Romantic Revival—1564-1750 A. D. 

a. Poets: Wyatt and Surrey, Shakespeare, Spenser, Milton, 
Goldsmith. 

b. Prose Writers: Sir Thomas Moore, Sidney, Dryden, Bun- 
yan, Newton, Defoe, Swift, Addison, Sheets, Johnson, Gold¬ 
smith. 

c. Satirists: Skelton, Dryden, Pope. 

d. Sonneteers: Wyatt, Surrey, Sidney, Gascoigne, Watson. 


READING 


(157) 307 


e. Historians: Sir Thomas Moore, Burnet, Gibson. 

f. Dramatists: Norton, Sackville, Johnson, Shakespeare. 

g. Pastoral Poets: Sidney, Spenser. 

h. Orators: Bacon. 

i. Essayists: Bacon, Johnson. 

j. Novelists: Lyly, Goldsmith, Richardson, Fielding. 

V. The Romantic Period—1750-1850 A. D. 

a. Poets: Collins, Gray, Blake, Burns, Wordsworth, Coleridge, 
Byron, Shelley, Keats, Southey. 

b. Prose Writers: Scott, Austen. 

c. Essayists: Lamb, Hazlitt, DeQuincey. 

V. The Victorian Period—1800-1900 A. D. 

a. Poets: Tennyson, Browning, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, 
Arnold, Ruskin. 

b. Prose Writers: Carlyle, Newman, Macauley. 

c. Essayists: Carlyle, Arnold, Macauley. 

d. Novelists: Dickens, Thackery, Elliot, Stevenson, Meredith, 
Bronte, Kingsley, Hardy. 

VI. The Modern Period—1900- 

a. Novelists: Conrad Sinclair, Hewet, Phillpots, Kipling, Gals¬ 
worthy, Wells, Chesterton, 
b. Poets: Bridges, Noyes, Brooks. 

REFERENCES 

Bible, The. 

Brooks: English Literature From the Beginnings to The Norman Con¬ 
quest. 

Cambridge: History of English Literature. 

Dowden: The Mind and Art of Shakespeare. 

Cross: Development of the English Novel. 

Jusserand: Literary History of the English People. 

Macauley: English Men of Letters. 

Saintsbury: English Men of Letters. 

Schelling: English Literature During the Lifetime of Shakespeare. 
Schofield.: English Literature from the Norman Conquest to Chaucer. 
Ward’s English Poets. 


308 (158) 


HEADING 


Importance of Oral Reading 

“Every teacher should be a superior oral reader. Every poem was 
written to be read aloud. The first step in teaching a poem is not to 
have the allusions looked up, the words defined, or the sentences parsed. 
It is not to discuss the meter, the rhymes and alliteration, the figures of 
speech, useful as some of these are. It is rather to read the poem to the 
pupils so well that its music shall be heard; its rhythm, its melody, its 
harmony of sound and sense, that give charm to every great work of lit¬ 
erary art. The teacher must understand and feel the thought and spirit 
of the poem; but unless he has perfected his voice as an instrument of 
expression, he can do little to awaken an appreciation of its beauty and 
power. The few teachers who can read well often seem afraid to read 
to their pupils. The children enjoy it so much that it seems like wast¬ 
ing time, if not positively wicked. We still hold the opinion that work 
is what we don’t like to do. Too much time may be devoted to reading 
aloud mere books of information, which have no special literary merit. 
After the mechanics of reading are mastered in the first four or five 
years, all reading aloud should be of literature—literature in the best 
sense. There has been in the past few years a lamentable decay in the 
art of oral expression, especially in our high schools. There is no possi¬ 
bility of relief until good reading is made an essential qualification of the 
teacher.” President David Felmley, State Normal University, Normal, 
Illinois. 

PART I. 


The aims of this division are: 

« 

1. To show how thought and emotion determine expression. 

2. To give to the student-teachers a better grasp of the fundamental 
principles underlying good oral expression. 

3. To increase the student-teachers’ skill in effective oral reading. 

4. To assist in diagnosing faults in expression on the part of pupils. 

5. To suggest remedies for poor expression. 

6. To aid pupils to increase their ability in expression. 

Suggested Lesson Distribution 

Test—One day. 

Time—One day. 

Grouping—Two days. 

Emphasis—Three days. 

Force—Two days. 

Quality—One day. 


READING 


( 159 ) 309 


Standardized Test in Reading 
To the Normal Training Instructor: 

Give to the normal training class Monroe’s Standardized Silent Read¬ 
ing Test (Test III) for grades 9-10-11-12. “(1) Follow the printed direc¬ 
tions carefully. Do no more or no less than the directions specify. Do 
not try to improve upon the directions. Comparisons of the scores of 
your pupils with the scores of other classes and with the standard scores 
will not be valid if the printed directions are not followed, because these 
scores were obtained according to these conditions. (2) Be careful to 
allow exactly the number of minutes specified—five minutes. Use a 
watch with a second-hand or a stop-watch if one is available. (3) The 
examiner should exercise care not to excite or frighten the pupils by his 
manner of giving the tests. He should not be in a hurry. He should 
not be cross. He should remember .that reliable measurements of the 
abilities of the pupils will not be obtained unless the pupils work natu¬ 
rally. (4) Study the directions for the tests until you are familiar with 
them. It is wise to go through the directions at least once imagining 
that you have the class before you. Your failure to be familiar with the 
directions may affect the scores of your pupils.”* 

Score the test papers and record the scores as a class exercise. 
“Have the observers study their data on silent reading. They scored 
the answers (1) as to comprehension or meaning of what was read and 
(2) as to rate of reading. Do their scores show weakness in comprehen¬ 
sion? If so, have them study the wrong answers given to find out 
whether the lack of comprehension was due to lack of vocabulary (not 
knowing what the words meant). Have them record all the evidence they 
can find of a lack of vocabulary. If doubtful, have them define some of 
the words and use them in written sentences. Also test the vocabulary 
of the students by a test from Thorndike’s Visual Vocabulary Scale. Do 
the students show weakness in vocabulary ability? Have them examine 
the answers and questions for a second weakness. Students might know 
the meaning of the words and not be able to sense the meaning of sen¬ 
tences as wholes. They must be able to relate the words and phrases 

so that the whole has meaning. Is there any evidence of this type of 

weakness ? A third factor might enter into the cause of lack of compre¬ 
hension. Can the observers find any evidence that the wrong answers 

are partly due to a habit of guessing or carelessness or giving as an 
answer the idea suggested by a word or phrase in the question and not 
by the question as a whole? Can the observers detect any other cause 
for the low score in comprehension? What, then, are the probable 
causes of lack of comprehension on the part of the class in question and 
what is the remedy for each case? If the class is below standard in 
rate of reading, what causes are in evidence ?”+ What remedial in¬ 
struction is needed? 

fMonroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, Houghton Mifflin Co. 

f Professional Training Course—Methods of Teaching Reading. 




310 (1G0) 


READING 


TIME 

Problem: 

Appreciation of the relation of content and emotion to Time. 

Each lesson of the course should be opened by a brief drill, using the 
articulation exercises (Ch. XIV) and exercises based on the use of the 
dictionary (Ch. XIII) alternately. The latter should include all marks 
of all letters. In applying the principles on pp. 157-159, class projects 
can be worked out by following the same plan illustrated on p. 159, using 
different consonants with each vowel. “Unlock the Door” can be secured 
from G. & C. Merriam Co., Springfield, Mass., without expense, for each 
member of the class. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Study “Where Go the Boats”, C. G. V. 46, for a type of slow time. 
Memorize. 

2. Study “Windy Nights”, C. G. V. 22, for rapid time. Memorize. 

3. Each student will select a different poem for type study in Time 
to be memorized and recited to the class. 

For Memory: 

“Hurt No Living Thing,” 

“September,” 

“Suppose,” 

“The Recessional,” 

“The Wind,” 

“At Morning,” 

Readings: 

Sherman & Reed—Essentials of Teaching Reading, Chapter I, Text, 
with discussion of such review questions as may need consideration. 
Clark—How to Teach Reading in the Public Schools, Chapter I. 

GROUPING 

Problem: 

To determine the influence of Grouping on time and on interpretation. 
Ch. II in Sherman & Reed, with questions, will lay the foundation for 
this element. Note that two different interpretations are possible for 
sentences in questions 8 and 10. In the last question, the first sen¬ 
tence contains a restriction clause, while the clause in the second is 
supplemental. In studying “The Village Blacksmith”, be sure that 
the readers and listeners form a definite picture of the “spreading 
chestnut tree” overshadowing the low “smithy”. A group division 
after “smithy” would be justified. Next they must add the “smith” 


Rosetti, 3-50. 

Jackson, 4-62 
Kipling. Text 264 
Stevenson, C. G. V. 52, 1-16 
Stevenson, 8-92 
Phoebe Cary, 3-50 


READING 


(161) 311 


so placed that the details that follow can be easily recognized. Be 
sure that emphasis is on “mighty”. 

In the third stanza, the smith must be at work at his anvil. The 
noise of the bellows and the sound of the hammer must arise in 
imagination, followed by the slow, measured tones cf the church 
bell, to which the latter is likened, closing with a glimpse of the 
sunset. 

In the fifth stanza, there should be a group division after “pray”. 
The smith is seen “among” a large family of boys. The service must 
be heard. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Study “Four-Leaf Clover”, (p. 237) for Grouping. Mark lines. 
Memorize. 

2. Study “They Come Not Back”, (p. 267) for Grouping. 

3. Have a simple prose selection from a primary reader marked 
and read for Grouping. 

4. Select from other lists or from the following for studies in Group¬ 
ing: 

“Good Morning,” Browning, 1-40 

“The Owl,” Tennyson, 3-69 

“I Remember, I Remember,” Hood, 3-70; p. 41 
“Boats Sail on the River,” Rosetti, 1-18 


Readings: 

Sherman & Reed—Essentials of Teaching Reading, Ch. II. 
Sherman—Elements of Literature and Composition, Ch. XXV. 
dark—How to Teach Reading in the Public Schools, Ch. I, IV. 


EMPHASIS 

Problem: 

To establish the function of Emphasis in showing the relation of 
ideas. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Use a first reader to illustrate Emphasis, having the pupils mark 
and then read the lessons. Better results can be secured by 
using first these simple exercises that have no mechanical diffi¬ 
culties. Choose selections that have consistent paragraph rela¬ 
tions. 


312 (182) 


HEADING 


2. Allow pupils to select, study and read to the class selections from 
first or second readers, illustrating Emphasis. 

3. Pupils will select and read to the class examples corresponding 
to each type of “Illustrative Lessons’’, (pp. 26-31). 

4. Pupils will select for study and memorization short poems illus¬ 
trating Emphasis. 

Readings: 

Sherman & Reed—Essentials of Teaching Reading, Ch. III-XIII with 

discussion of such questions as need further explanation. 

Clark—How to Teach Reading in the Public Schools, Chapters II, 
VIII, IX. 


FORCE 

Problem: 

To recognize the quality Force and to respond appropriately to the 
emotion. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Study “The Circus-Day Parade”, (p. 218) as a type showing 
emotions that appeal to a child. 

2. Study “Casabianca”, 4-16. 

3. Study “The Landing of the Pilgrims”, 5-33. 

4. Study “Gettysburg Address”, p. 248. 

5. Each member of the class find and report a prose selection show¬ 
ing strong qualities of Force. 

6. Each member of the class find a short poem or stanza to illustrate 
Force. Memorize. 

Readings: 

Sherman & Reed—Essentials of Teaching Reading, Ch. VI with re¬ 
view questions. 

Sherman—Elements of Literature and Composition, Ch. XXIII. 
Clark—How to Teach Reading in the Public Schools, Ch. IV. 

QUALITY 

Problem: 

To determine the relation between the emotional content of a pas¬ 
sage and the quality of the voice in expressing the meaning. 


READING 


(163) 313 


Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Each member develop the atmosphere appropriate to the opening 
lines of Gray’s “Elegy”, (p. 2). 

2. Let each member suggest a selection and work out an appro¬ 
priate atmosphere. Memorize. 

Readings: 

Sherman & Reed—Essentials of Teaching Reading, Ch. VI with exer¬ 
cises for practice. 

Sherman—Elements of Literature and Composition, Ch. XXII. 

Clark—How to Teach Reading in the Public Schools, Ch. III. 


Aims: 


PART II 


1. To show how the reader must infer much of an author’s meaning. 

2. To make the student-teacher more responsive to the message of 
a writer. 


3. To give the student-teacher more ability in selecting material 
suitable to the age and life experiences of the class. 

4. To suggest means by which pupils can better interpret material 
by an appeal to experience. 


Suggested Lesson Distribution 


Types and Figures—Three days. 

Effects—Six days. 

Summary and Review and Examination—One day. 


TYPES AND FIGURES 

Problem: 

To recognize the effectiveness of using type qualities to economize 
efforts at interpretation. 

The first quotation on page 64 might have been written, “Silently, 
one by one, like flowers in infinite meadows, Appeared the lovely 
stars, like forget-me-nots of the angels.” 
or again, 

“Silently, one by one, in infinite meadows appearing, Blossomed the 
lovely flowers, the forget-me-nots of the angels.” 

Either would have preserved the form and satisfied the demands of 
meter, giving approximately the same meaning. Let the class decide 
the exact difference, and the advantage in the form the poet chose. 


314 (164) 


READING 


Prcjects and Related Problems: 


1. Make a critical study of the figures used by Stevenson in “The 
Land of Counterpane”, (C. G. V. 33, or p. 2) determining rhe 
basis of each as shown by the type quality selected. Rewrite the 
iast stanza so as to preserve the meter and the rhyme but 
changing to simile and also to allegory. Memorize the poem. 


2. Make a similar study of “My Bed is a Boat”, C. G. V. 58. 

3. Study “Excelsior”, 5-89, determining the types and the meaning. 

4. Make a similar study of “Lincoln, the Great Commoner”, (p. 268). 


5. Each student will select a different poem for study of types, using 
those given below, or such as each may choose. Re-write several 
passages, changing the figure. Memorize. 


“Daisies,” 

“The Violet,” 

“Jack Frost,” 

“Rain in Summer,” 
“Hymn to the Night,” 
“A Psalm of Life,” 
“The Day is Done,” 
“The Ship of State,” 


Sherman 1-66 
Larcom 3-27 
Gould 3-88 
Longfellow 4-9 
Longfellow 7-81 
Longfellow 5-82 
Longfellow 5-37 
Longfellow 8-67 


Readings: 

Sherman & Reed—Essentials of Teaching Reading, Ch. VII with re¬ 
view questions. 

Sherman—Elements of Literature and Composition, pp. 11-13. 


EFFECTS 

Problem: 

To oecome conscious of the use of the emotional appeal as a means 
of vividness and completeness of interpretation. 


Prcjects and Related Problems: 

1. Make studies of “Effects” in one or more of the following: 

“King Solomon and the Two Mothers,” (p. 228) 

“Daniel Webster’s First Case,” (p. 232) 

“Abou Ben Adhem,” (p. 252) 

“The Home by the Side of the Road,” (p. 240) 

2. Have pupils report original material illustrating each of the six 
kinds of “Effects”. 


READING 


(165) 315 


3. Make an examination of second, third and fourth readers for 
material containing “Effects'’. 

Have illustrations read in class. 


4. Study for “Effects” and memorize one or more of the following 
selections: 


“Incident of the French Camp,” 
“Apparitions,” 

“How They Brought the Good News,” 
“I Love You, Mother,” 

“The Three Fishers,” 

“The Lost Doll,” 

“How the Leaves Came Down,” 
“Thanksgiving Day,” 

“A Fairy Tale,” 

“The Tempest,” 


Browning 8-43 
Browning 8-45 
Browning p. 79 
Allison 1-86 
Kingsley 6-19 
Kingsley 1-42 
Coolidge 1-81 
Child 3-32 
Cone 4-51 
Field 3-71 


5. Allow pupils to report selections of their own that are strong in 
appeals to the emotions. Memorize one or more. 


Readings: 


Sherman & Reed—Essentials of Teaching Reading, Chapter VIII 
with exercises and review questions. 

Stone—Silent and Oral Reading, 80-95. 


Aims: 


PART III. 


1. To aid the student-teacher in securing good results in reading 
by evaluating material and methods. 


2. To show how to secure good results in reading by improving the 
technique of instruction. 


Suggested Lesson Distribution 

Primary Reading—Three weeks. 

Problems in Upper Grade Reading—Two weeks. 
Assignment and Recitation—Two weeks. 

Studying School Texts as Summary and Application of the 
Principles of the Course—One week. 


PRIMARY READING 


Problem: 

How to organize and present the material of instruction for begm- 
The material of the text on pages 92 to 109 and in Tinley’s 


ners. 


316 (166) 


READING 


First’ Steps in Reading- should be mastered, as it gives an eclectic ap¬ 
proach to teaching beginners that can be followed with confidence. 
It is better for the young teacher to have full control of some plan 
of procedure. With experience modifications can be made to suit 
individual inclinations. 

It is desirable and possible to establish in the first lessons the ideal 
that reading- is primarily a process of thought getting-. Much help in 
plans for the use of silent reading as an introductory process can be 
secured from the first twenty-six lessons in Chapter III of Searson 
and Martin’s Manual. 

Be sure that all reading from the very beginning is thoughtful and 
expressive. Many young teachers are so concerned with the mastery 
of word lists that they permit the reading exercise to degenerate 
into the mere recognition and pronunciation of words. Incorrect 
ideals are thus established and wrong habits are fixed. There is no 
occasion for haste. Take time to secure correct results. Have much 
drill on list of words, but at a separate time from the reading reci¬ 
tation. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. What is the fundamental purpose of primary reading? 

2. What part does imitation play in primary reading? 

3. Why have word drills ? 

4. What is the relation of phonics to reading? 

5. What training is involved in applying phonics to word study? 

6. What are the chief difficulties in phonics? How and when con¬ 
duct phonic drills? 

7. What is the function of diacritical marks and how are they to 
be used in primary reading ? ' 

8. Why have dramatics in primary reading? 

9. What is the purpose of the story? 

10. What is fundamental in telling a story well ? 

11. How can seat work aid in reading? 

12. What is the purpose of pictures in primary reading? 

13. How is imagery related to emphasis? 

14. Why should the teacher read to the pupils ? 

15. Why emphasize silent reading? How test silent reading? 

16. What difficulties are encountered in oral reading that are not 
encountered in silent reading? 

17. What is the purpose of silent reading? What are the problems 
of silent reading in the primary grades ? 

18. What vocal problems are encountered in oral reading? 


READING 


( 167 ) 317 


19. What are the requisites of good primary readers ? 

20. How can a knowledge of “Mechanics of Reading” aid the teacher 
of primary reading? 

21. What is the purpose of memory gems ? 

22. Study the series of lessons for beginners in the text used in your 
school system. Criticize them from the standpoint of attractive¬ 
ness, familiarity with the experience of the children, difficulty 
of new words, thought relations, and adaptability to use in pre¬ 
paring thoughtful, expressive, fluent, and independent readers. 

23. Study the series of illustrations as an aid to interpretation. 

24. Read a series of connected lessons for beginners as a class exer¬ 
cise, for the purpose of determining their adaptability to prepar¬ 
ing thoughtful, expressive, fluent and independent readers. 

25. Prepare a series of lessons to supplement the lessons for begin¬ 
ners in the text studied. 

26. Write a dramatization of an assigned topic, that can be used by 
a class that has attended school a suggested time. 

27. Prepare a series of connected lessons for beginners, similar to 
those on pp. 92 and 93. Be sure that each has consistent para¬ 
graph relations, and that the difficulties in thought relations are 
at a minimum. The meaning of the sentences should be evident, 
giving no occasion for doubt as to interpretation. The establish¬ 
ment of correct ideas from the very beginning is of the utmost 
importance. It is an unnecessary waste of energy to permit the 
formation of wrong ideals or of incorrect habits, which must 
be corrected later at great loss of time and effort. 

28. Prepare a set of word cards to accompany the series of lessons 
suggested above. 

29. Prepare a series of lessons using action words, (p. 97). 

30. Prepare a series of exercises for silent reading. 

31. Prepare a set of cards to aid in silent reading. 

32. Originate a device for interesting drill and review of words. 

33. From test given Normal Trainers determine chief strength and 
chief weaknesses of the class and the individuals of the class. 

34. Plan an exercise for a game that will fix the form and use of a 
difficult word. 

35. Prepare a series of pictures that can be used for “labeling”. 

36. Find a collection of rhymes that can be used to advantage. 

37. Arrange a series of connected emotional sentences that will pro¬ 
vide an occasion for expressive reading. 

38. Write a dialogue that will aid expression. 

39. Write a dramatization from Mother Goose Rhymes. 

40. Write a dramatization based on a primer lesson. 


318 (168) 


HEADING 


SPECIAL CLASS PROJECT—Study of Special Methods in Primary 
Reading. 

I Phonic Methods 

Problem: 

To secure such knowledge of important phonic systems as will en¬ 
able the student-teacher to make use of one of them in preparing 
independent readers. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Make a careful study of the Ward Manual. 

2. Make a careful study of the Beacon Manual, noting the funda¬ 
mental difference from the former system. 

II Story Methods 

Problem: 

To recognize the place of longer units of discourse in preparing 
thoughtful, expressive and fluent readers. 

Use Searson and Martin, and Elson Manuals. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Prepare an exercise based on a lesson from the Aldine Manual. 

2. Prepare an exercise based on the Progressive Manual. 

3. Compare these exercises from the standpoint of ease and natural¬ 
ness in expression. 

4. Compare approach of Searson and Martin Manual with Aldine, 
Progressive and Elson Manuals. 

Summary 

Study each of above texts, or others, from standpoint of previous 
problems and projects. 

Readings: 

Sherman & Reed—Essentials of Teaching Reading—Chapter IX, 
Chapter X (The Outline and Questions are always to be considered 
as part of citation). 

Stone—Silent and Oral Reading—Chapter III. 

Briggs & Coffman—Reading in the Public Schools, Part II. 

Klapper—Teaching Children to Read—Chapters VII, VIII. 

Tinley—First Steps in Reading. 

Searson & Martin—Teachers’ Manual, Chapters I-IV, XII-XVII. 
Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, Chapter V. 


READING 


(169) 319 


PROBLEMS IN UPPER GRADE READING 

Problem: 

To evaluate some of the most prominent problems in upper grade 
reading. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. What is the purpose of sight reading? What are the chief diffi¬ 
culties encountered? 

2. Why is silent reading so important? 

3. Same as problem 16 under Primary Reading. 

4. Why is speed valuable and how attain it? 

5. What are the chief aims in the reading of the intermediate 
grades ? 

6. What are the chief aims in grammar grades ? 

7. Distinguish between “intensive” and “extensive” reading as de¬ 
fined by Klapper. What is the purpose of each? 

8. How can a knowledge of the “mechanics of reading” help the 
teacher in upper grades? 

9. Make a study of readers in use in your school and determine 
selections of the first class in some one of the readers for the 
upper grades. 

10. Have similar assignment for material of the second class. Third 
class, Fourth class. 

Special Class Project—The Use of the Dictionary. 

Problem: 

/ 

To stimulate interest in the use of the dictionary. 

Plan games or exercises from “The Use of the Dictionary” or “Dog- 
Day Club”. A supply of this material can be secured without cost 
from G. & C. Merriam Co., Springfield, Mass. 

* 

Readings: 

Sherman & Reed—Essentials of Teaching Reading—Chapters XII, 
XIII, XIV and XVIII. 

Stone—Silent and Oral Reading—Chapters IV, V, VI. 

Briggs & Coffman—Reading in the Public Schools—Chapters XII 
and XIII. 

Klapper—Teaching Children to Read—Chapter IX. 

Searson & Martin—Teachers’ Manual, Chapters XII, XIV, XVII-XX. 
Bolenius Teachers’ Manual—pages xiii-xliv. 


320 (170) 


READING 


ASSIGNMENT AND RECITATION 
Assignment of the Lesson 

Problem: 

To determine the most effective way of assigning reading material 
or supervising the preparation of the lesson. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. What should be the teacher’s preparation? 

2. How prepare a class for the attack upon the lesson ? 

3. How does classification of material affect assignment? 

4. How does supervised study affect assignment? 

5. How does organization of class into “groups” affect assignment? 

6. How does the assignment of an “intensive” lesson differ from 
the assignment of an “extensive” lesson? 

7. How get the right attitude? 

8. Assign a lesson from a first reader used in the school, illustrating 
all of the principles discussed in the solution of the above prob¬ 
lem. 

9. Make a similar assignment for one of the grammar grades. 

10. Make a similar assignment for a class divided into groups. 

11. Assign an exercise for supervised study. Carry out the plan of 
study with a class. 

12. Make plan of assignment of an exercise for individual reading 
by an alternating program as suggested on page 127. 

Readings: 

Sherman & Reed—Essentials of Teaching Reading, Chapters XI and 
XII to page 135, Chapters XVI and XVIII. 

Stone—Silent and Oral Reading, 119-152. 

Brigg’s & Coffman—Reading in the Public Schools, Chapters XXIII- 
XXV. 

Klapper—Teaching Children to Read, pages 128-135. 

The Recitation 

Problem: 

To provide helpful application of principles affecting the efficient 
use of the recitation period. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. How does organization of class into “groups” affect the reci¬ 
tation ? 


READING 


% 


(171) 321 


•T 4 


2. How does assignment affect the recitation? 

3. What is socialized recitation ? What are its advantages for the 
reading class? 

4. When use recitation as study period? 

5. How does recitation for silent reading differ from recitation in 
sight reading? 

6. What is the value of right emotional attitude? 

7. Have the first reader lesson recited using socialized form. 

8. Exercise in group recitation, socialized form. 

9. Illustrate a dramatization of selected material. 


Readings: 

> 

Sherman & Reed—Essentials of Teaching Reading, Chapters XIII, 
XVII, Review Chapters XVI, X, XII. 

Stone—Silent and Oral Reading, Chapter VIII. 

Briggs & Coffman—Reading in the Public Schools, Chapter XXV. 
Klapper—Teaching Children to Read, pages 135-158. 

Bolenius—Teachers’ Manual, pages xxxi-xxxvii. 

PLAN FOR STUDYING A TEXT 

Problem: 

To determine qualities of excellence in text books in reading as an 
aid to selecting texts. 


Class Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Make a careful study of a school reader or school readers, and 
evaluate according to the following outline: 

1. Material. 

a. Quality—Good authors; carefully selected; of intrinsic worth; 

attractive; good length. 

b. Variety—At least four types; appropriate to age; dramatic; 

humorous; nature; fable; folk lore; home duty; adven¬ 
ture; biography; history; for occasions—festival, pat¬ 
riotic, seasons. 

c. Quantity. 

2. Organization. 

a. Gradation—Vocabulary; sentence structure; plot; length. 

b. Arrangement. 

c. Adaptation to school purposes. 

3. Equipment. 

a. Help for pupils—Word lists; analysis of difficult words and 
phrases; questions; biographies. 



322 (172) 


READING 


b. Help for teachers—Manuals, etc. 

4. Mechanical. 

a. Binding. 

b. Type—Graded according to age; of size to avoid eye strain. 

c. Illustrations—Illuminating; colors; black and white; relation 

to printed matter; number; variety; appeal. 

2. How do the readers studied in solution of the above problem 
attempt to solve the problems of (apply the principles of) teach¬ 
ing reading. 


SUMMARIES AND REVIEWS 

Splendid opportunities are offered all through the course for making 
summaries of the work previously covered and of fixing it by applying 
the knowledge gained to the problems in hand. The special class pro¬ 
ject under primary reading furnishes an excellent opportunity for sum¬ 
marizing the principles of primary reading. The plan for studying a 
text furnishes an excellent opportunity for summarizing the whole body 
of the principles of teaching reading and an excellent means of applying 
those principles in a very important way. 


BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY ON READING 

Books Referred to as Essential to Course: 

Sherman & Reed—Essentials of Teaching Reading, 

University Publishing Company, Lincoln. 

Klapper—Teaching Children to Read, 

D. Appleton and Company, New York. 

Briggs & Coffman—Reading in the Public Schools, 

Row, Peterson & Company, Chicago. 

Tinley—First Steps in Reading, 

University Publishing Company, Lincoln. 

Bolenius—Teachers Manual of Silent and Oral Reading, 

Houghton Mifflin Company, Chicago. 

Searson & Martin, and Tinley—Teachers Manual for Studies in 
Reading. University Publishing Company, Lincoln. 

Stone—Silent and Oral Reading, 

Houghton Mifflin Company, Chicago. 



READING 


(173) 323 


Other Books referred to in Course: 

Clark—How to Teach Reading in the Public Schools, 

Scott, Foresman & Company, Chicago. 

Sherman—Elements of Literature and Composition, 

University Publishing Company, Lincoln 

Graded Poetry Readers—(Set for Selection of Memory Gems) 

Charles E. Merrill Co., Chicago. 

Stevenson—A Child’s Garden of Verses, 

Rand, McNally & Company, Chicago. 

Penniman—The School Poetry Book, 

D. C. Heath & Company, Chicago. 

The Beacon Method Teacher’s Manual, 

Ginn & Company, Chicago. 

The Ward Manual, 

Silver, Burdette & Co., Chicago. 

Spaulding & Bryce—Learning to Read, (Aldine Manual), 

Newson & Company, New York. 


Progressive Manual, 

Silver, Burdette & Co., Chicago. 


Other Helpful Books: 

Arnold—Reading and How to Teach It, 

Silver, Burdette & Co., Chicago. 

Bryant—How to Tell Stories to Children, 

Houghton Mifflin Company, Chicago. 

Jenkins—Reading in the Primary Grades, 

Houghton Mifflin Company, Chicago. 

Sawyer—Five Messages to Teachers of Primary Reading, 

Rand, McNally & Company, Chicago. 

McMurry—Special Methods in Reading for the Grades, 

The Macmillan Company, Chicago. 

Charters—Teaching the Common Branches, 

Houghton Mifflin Company, Chicago. 

Kendall and Mirick—How to Teach the Fundamental Subjects, 

Houghton Mifflin Company, Chicago. 

Teachers’ Manuals to the Various Sets of Readers Published by Dif¬ 
ferent Companies. 






\ 


t 




HANDWORK 

Prof. Clara 0. Wilson 
University of Nebraska 


DRAWING 

Sue Q. Hoagland 

Art Supervisor Lincoln City Schools 


326 (176) 


HANDWORK AND DRAWING 



Drawing and Handwork 

The aim of these courses of study in Drawing and Handwork is to 
furnish such a series of problems, projects and readings as will best fit 
the Normal Training Student, in the limited time he has for study and 
practice, to conduct a sensible art and handwork course in the rural 
schools. The projects in this course are designed as laboratory work, 
to occupy a double laboratory period each not used for discussion of 
readings. Credit will not be given for less. 

HANDWORK 

The aim of this section of the course is three fold: 

1. To help the inexperienced teacher make the best use of the child’s 
natural activities and his desire to do things. 

Children are distinctly motor in their reactions and turn instinctively 
toward construction and handwork as a means of expression and power. 
To get purposeful activity from each child the teacher must know how 
to work on the child’s level and how to raise that level; must be able to 
give suggestions when needed, relating to the things which are of value 
and use to the pupil now, rather than impose things useful from the adult 
point of view. 

The pupil must be able to do things by and for himself, become 
independent through a realization of his own power over his tools and 
materials. “Busy work” which functions only in keeping the child out 
of mischief is not to be tolerated. 

2. To increase the teacher’s own skill and to show her the possi¬ 
bilities of materials. 

3. To show the functioning of handwork as a form of study, and 
as a means of illustration. To this end technique (skill) is subordinated. 
Handwork is to be a means to an end and not an end in itself. 

Suggested Lesson Distribution 
First Week 

Two days—Paper Tearing and Cutting 
One day—Paper Construction 
One day—Sewing and Weaving 
One day—Discussion of Readings 


HANDWORK AND DRAWING 


(177) 327 


Second Week 

Two days—Sand and Clay 

Two days—Woodwork 

One day—Discussion of Readings 

Individual Project—Nature Materials (To be carried out 
by each individual in the class at any time during the 
course.) 


PAPER TEARING AND CUTTING 

Problem: 

Appreciation of the making of paper forms as’a means of expression 

and their use as a means of illustration. 

In planning work for small children use large materials. Fine work 

makes children nervous and results in serious eye strain. 

Class Projects: 

1. Using newspaper tear out illustrations of some “Mother Goose” 
rhyme. Let class guess which one. 

Working in groups of four or five, illustrate some familiar child 
story, each member of the group contributing a part. Other 
groups guess the story. Mount the results. 

2. Using some inexpensive paper cut freely the following: Paper 
doll; any familiar object—house, toy animals, a flower; illustra¬ 
tion for a story. 

3. Using colored paper or white paper with crayons work out one of 
the following: Valentine, Christmas card, Easter card, May 
basket. 

4. Use white paper folded into one-half inch squares. Cut paper 
into pieces five units high and three or four units wide (three 
units for most letters, four units for the wide letters such as “M” 

and “W”) and make an alphabet. 

Readings: 

Dobbs—Primary Handwork, Chap. I and II. 

Dobbs—Illustrative Handwork, pp. 39-52. 

Colby—Drawing and Making, Chap. IX. 

Snow & Froelich—Industrial Art Text Books, Chap. II in Parts I 

to III. 

PAPER AND CRUDE MATERIALS CONSTRUCTION 
Problem: 

To test power over materials. 

It is a mistake always to provide expensive prepared materials at 
school. The child will not have these materials at home. Children use 


328 (178) 


HANDWORK AND DRAWING 


crude materials in the home and if taught how to use them will become 
resourceful and ingenious. 

Class Projects: 

1. Using rather stiff paper (“Kraft” or Hardware) cut into nine 
inch squares (fold sixteen squares). From this make a chair, a 
box, a wagon. 

2. From crude materials—such as small boxes, ribbon bolts, kodak 
spools, milk bottle tops, etc.—make a toy. Clever balancing toys 
can be made by gluing a dress weight in the side of a ribbon 
bolt so that it will rock without tilting over—put toy animal on 
top. 

Readings: 

Dobbs—Primary Handwork, Chapters VI and VIII. 

Dobbs—Illustrative Handwork, pp. 65-72. 

Colby—Drawing and Making, pp. 85-92. 

SEWING AND WEAVING 

Problem: 

How can handwork serve in “child level” motivation? 

Sewing cards commonly used in primary rooms are too fine and 
hence result in eye strain and nervousness. They give little chance for 
original work and when finished are of no value to the child as they 
cannot be used in his play. 

Weaving a doll rug for the doll’s house, a hammock for the doll to 
swing in, crocheting horse reins to be used in play, making furniture for 
the play house, all furnish good handwork with a real purpose from the 
child’s standpoint. The results will be crude but they will be the child’s 
work and not the teacher’s. When a child needs a thing in his play and 
then makes it, we get “purposeful activity”. 

Class Projects: 

1. Make a doll of crude materials such as a clothespin, bottle, twig, 
corn cob, sock. 

2. Weave a doll’s hammock, rug or scarf. Make your loom of card¬ 
board. Rugs may be made of chenille, jute, roving or rags. 

3. (Optional) Make dress for doll, curtains for doll’s house, bag for 
marbles. 


HANDWORK AND DRAWING 


(179) 329 


Readings: 

Dobbs—Primary Handwork, pp. 40-45. 

Colby—Drawing and Making, pp. 84-85. 

SAND AND CLAY 

Problem: 

Is handwork legitimate both as a form of study and as a form of 
recitation ? 

Few materials are of more value to the young child or give more 
wholesome pleasure than sand and clay. The child uses both hands 
and quickly comes to feel his power over materials. This material 
presents new possibilities each day for it can be used over and over 
again. Sand should always be moist to prevent breathing the dust. 

Class Projects: 

1. Experiment with a piece of clay for fifteen minutes as a child 
would do to see what you can do with it. 

2. Class as a group or in groups illustrate a story or make a circus. 

3. Make some permanent object. Bake if possible, if not, then dry, 
paint with water colors and afterwards shellac. (Beads, bowl, 
stocking darner, paper file—using nail for post, paper weight). 

4. Using sand table, illustrate some lesson either observed or re¬ 
cited, using as much of material already made as possible. 

Readings: 

Dobbs—Primary Handwork, Chap. VII. 

Dobbs—Illustrative Handwork, pp. 57-65. 

Colby—Drawing and Making, Chapter VIII. 

WOODWORK 

Problem: 

Can Handwork initiate the natural (problem) method of attack in 
other school studies such as art, arithmetic, geography, history, 
literature, etc. ? 

Class Projects: 

1. Using scrap lumber, old chalk boxes, grocery boxes, make some¬ 
thing a child could make. 

2. From four grocery boxes make a four room house. Divide the 
class into groups, each group to be responsible for a room. List 



330 (180) 


HANDWORK AND DRAWING 


problems on art, history, literature and arithmetic that might be 
initiated by this project. 


Readings: 

Dobbs—Primary Handwork, Chapters V, VI. 

Colby—Drawing and Making, pp. 81-85. 

Snow & Froelich—Industrial Art Text Books, Chap. 4, Parts I to VIII. 


Problem: 


NATURE MATERIALS 
(Individual Project) 


To discover possibilities of handwork in nature materials. 


Projects Suggested: 

Milk weed pods—Make animals with toothpick legs. 

Cockle Burrs—Stick together making animals, cover with thin layer 
of cotton. 

Rose buds—String into a necklace. 

Straw—Weave into a mat. 

Vegetables—Make animals. 

Peanuts—Dolls, animals. 

Flowers—Dolls, wreaths. 

Leaves—Chains, hats, boats. 


DRAWING 

/ 

A generation or more ago, the purpose of the study of art in schools 
was nothing more than the achievement of technical skill in drawing— 
today art education aims to cultivate appreciation for beautiful things 
and to develop art as a means of expression. Art is as much a language 
as any other form of expression. The first question asked in modern 
education is, “How will this material and this method of handling the 
material function in the pupil’s life when he leaves school”. The answer 
art education makes to this question will ultimately determine its place 
in the curriculum. 

The aims of this section of the course are: 

1. To awaken the interest of teachers in the possibilities' of aft as 
a means of expression. 

2. To broaden the teacher’s knowledge of the principles of art and 
to show some of the application of these principles to school work and to 
work outside the school. 

3. To develop the teacher’s skill in handling art materials as a 
means of expression. To this end, as in the handwork, technique is sub- 


HANDWORK AND DRAWING 


(181) 331 


ordinate. It is not more the function of the art course in schools to make 
artists than it is the function of arithmetic to make astronomers. 

4. To show the use of art as a means of initiating observation of 
color, design and space relations. 

Suggested Lesson Distribution 
Third Week 

REPRESENTATION—One week 

One day—Picture Writing 
One day—Freehand Drawing from Objects 
One day—Freehand Drawing from Nature 
Two days—Discussion of Readings 

Fourth and Fifth Weeks 

DESIGN AND COLOR—Two weeks 

Two days—Color Theory and Color Schemes 
Two days—Fundamentals of Design 
Two days—Commercial Design 
Four days—Discussion of Readings 


PERSPECTIVE AND CONSTRUCTION—One week 

Two days—Perspective and Convergence 

One day—Working Drawing 

Two days—Discussion of Readings 

INDIVIDUAL PROJECT—School Posters and Booklets 

(To be carried out by individual students at 
any time during the course.) 


Problem: 


REPRESENTATION 
Picture Writing 


Can drawing function as a language for children? 


Class Projects: 

1. Draw on blackboard “toothpick” man sitting, standing, walking, 
running, jumping, lying. 

2. Illustrate some familiar story or Mother Goose rhyme. 

3. Illustrate a similar story painting in mass with brush and ink or 
black water color. 

4. Bring to class several cartoons representing this form of art. 


332 (182) 


HANDWORK AND DRAWING 


Freehand Drawing from Objects 

Problem: 

To represent object forms in terms of mass and outline. 

Class Projects: 

1. Draw some object familiar to and interesting to children. 

2. Draw on blackboard three or four familiar trees showing char¬ 
acteristic masses. Same in outline. 

3. Cut out a series of object forms to be used later in design. 

Freehand Drawing from Nature 

Problem: 

To record interesting facts from nature in this new language. 

Class Projects: 

1. Bring flower, fruit and vegetable forms to classroom, study man¬ 
ner of growth, proportion, shape, etc. Using inexpensive paper 
cut forms. Save patterns to be traced later on colored paper. 

2. Draw in outline, leaf, fruit form, sprays. Save these drawings 
for design motifs to be used later. 

Readings: 

Colby—Drawing, Painting, Making, Chapters I, II, V. 

Prang—Art Education in High School, Chapter 1. 

Snow & Froelich—Industrial Art Textbooks, Chapter 7 in Parts I to 
IV, Chapter 8 in Parts I to III. 

Soper—Principles and Practice of Drawing (Excellent for teacher). 

COLOR AND DESIGN 
Color Theory and Color Schemes 

“The child’s knowledge of color built upon a logical foundation will 
greatly aid in expressing colors seen.” “A knowledge of color harmonies 
will give us quite as much pleasure as music.” Inharmonious color com¬ 
binations have a tendency to make one nervous and irritable. 

Problem: 

To develop mental image of color and to show how to reproduce that 
image. 

Water color boxes containing the three primary colors—red, yellow 
and blue—with black for silhouette, are the best. There is great edu¬ 
cational value in learning how to combine or mix colors. Using the 


HANDWORK AND DRAWING 


(183) 333 


three primary colors as a basis all other colors may be worked out. Mix 
yellow with blue, the result is green. Mix yellow with red, the result is 
orange. Mix blue with red, the result is violet or purple. Green, orange, 
and violet are the secondary or binary colors. Mix the three primary 
colors and the result is gray or some shade of brown depending on the 
proportions of paint used. 

Nature uses very small spots of color in full intensity. She grays her 
large masses of color. To gray a color add to that color a little of its 
complement. The complement of any color is the color opposite in any 
standard color chart. A simpler way to find the complement of a color— 
consider the three primary colors: The complement of any one of the 
colors is the color produced by mixing the other two, e. g., yellow and 
blue mixed produce (green) the complement of red. Green added to red 
grays it, red added to green grays the green, etc. 

(See Colby—Chapter XI on Care and Distribution of Materials.) 

Class Projects: 

1. Paint a section of drawing paper with water colors or crayons 
to match some nature specimen, for example, the yellow of the 
sunflower petals, green of the leaves, browns and greens of the 
stems of sprays. Trace forms already cut (Project 1, Freehand 
Drawing from Nature) on this colored paper and cut. Save these 
cuttings for posters. 

2. With water colors, paint in mass, without drawing, representa¬ 
tion in color of nature sprays. Save these for color harmonies in 
design. 

3. Make simple color charts illustrating the theory of color. 

/ , 

Fundamentals of Design 

Problem: 

S ' ■ 

To develop an appreciation of good design. 

Design is the basis of all art expression. It is the selection and 
orderly arrangement of harmonious lines and colors. A well designed 
article of dress suitable to the person who is to wear it is a thing of 
beauty. A room arranged with regard to harmony of line and color tends 
to promote rest and happiness. Design functions in the construction of 
every article used, and in commercial life it reaches a very high type in 
beautiful rugs, furniture, advertisements, etc. Design is governed by 
the principles of Balance, Rhythm and Unity or Harmony. 

Class Projects: 

1. With nature and object forms already cut or drawn (third week) 
arrange and paste a border design. 


334 (184) 


HANDWORK AND DRAWING 


2. From nature forms made (third week) work these into units of 
conventional design. 

3. Make a page of good design motifs, within a margin previously 
drawn on the page, observing the principles of design. 

4. Paint the above design using different harmonious color schemes. 
Principles of design function in color schemes. 

Commercial Design 

Problem: 

How does art function in commercial life? 

To reach its highest use art must be practical. The practical is 
shown in the so-called commercial design—in the arrangement of letter¬ 
ing, page proportions, mountings, signs, posters, bookbinding, advertise¬ 
ments, etc. 

Class Projects: 

1. Bring a half dozen advertisements to class and show how they 
illustrate the principles of design. 

2. With letters already cut (First week, Handwork) and fruit forms 
already drawn or cut (Third week) make a poster advertising sale 
of the article. 

3. Devise a good advertisement illustrating the principles of design 
in line, space and color. 

Readings: 

Colby—Drawing, Painting, Making, Chapters II, V, VI, XI, XII. 
Prang—Art Education in High Schools, Chapter VI to page 265. 

Snow & Froelich—Industrial Art Textbooks, p. 207, pp. 69-72, and 
Chapters I, II in Parts I-VIII; Chapter VIII in Parts IV-VIII. 

The School Arts Magazine—June, 1920. 

Soper—Principles and Practice of Drawing (Excellent for teacher). 
Snow & Froelich—Color Theory. 

PERSPECTIVE AND CONSTRUCTION 
Perspective and Convergence 

Problem: 

How can three dimensions be represented on a flat surface ? 
Perspective has to do with appearance and not with facts. Things 
are represented “as they seem and not as they are”. 


HANDWORK AND DRAWING 


(185) 335 


Class Projects: 

1. Using a hoop, a box, a cylinder, a cone, study their appearance. 
Represent this appearance in drawing. 

2. Study the effect of distance in the landscape and represent a 
portion of it. 

3. Study the appearance of the longest school room in the building 
and try to represent it in a drawing. 

Working Drawing 

Problem: 

How can drawing function as an aid to construction? 

Working drawings deal with the facts and not with appearances. 
They represent “things as they are and not as they seem”. It is the form 
of art expression universally used by those who construct the practical 
things of the world. 

Class Projects: 

1. Make a working drawing for some article that a child can make. 
Standard for a toy animal, a bird house, a waste basket, etc. 

2. Make a working drawing of one of the simpler farm buildings. 

Readings: 

Prang—Art Education in High School, Chapter II, pp. 59-103; pp. 
129-134; pp. 181-186. 

Snow & Froelich—Industrial Art Textbooks, Chapter VII in Parts 
V to VIII. 


INDIVIDUAL PROJECTS 
School Pesters and Booklets 

Problem: 

How can School Posters and Booklets function in the correlation of 
art with other studies of the curriculum? (To be worked out by 
individual students at any time during the course.) 

Readings: 

Colby—Drawing, Painting, Making, Chapter X. 

Dobbs—Primary Handwork, Chapter III. 

Dobbs—Illustrative Handwork, pf). 38 to 57. 

Snow & Froelich—Industrial Art Textbooks, Chapter II in Parts 

I to VIII. 


336 (186) 


HANDWORK AND DRAWING 


LIST OF REFERENCES 

*Dobbs—Primary Handwork, The Macmillan Company, Chicago. 
#Dobbs—Illustrative Handwork, The Macmillan Company, Chicago. 
jfColby—Drawing, Painting, Making, Scott, Foresman Co., Chicago. 
fParker—Types of Teaching and Learning, Ginn & Co., Chicago. 
|Snow & Froelich—Industrial Art Text Books, The A. S. Barnes Co., 
Chicago. 

ifPrang—Art Education in High School, Prang Publishing Co., Chi¬ 
cago. 

#Snow & Froelich—Color Theory, Prang Publishing Co., Chicago. 



*One of Dobbs’ Primary Handwork for each four pupils. 
|One set of Industrial Art Textbooks for each four pupils, 
fin Professional Training Library. 



ORTHOGRAPHY 


By the Editor 


338 (188) 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


Orthography 

Orthography is here considered as a phase of expression in language, 
oral or written, and not as a thing separate and apart from expression 
sufficient unto itself. It demands specialized treatment only insofar as 
its formalities and difficulties differ from the formalities and difficulties 
of other forms of expression. The difficulties of word study are formida¬ 
ble, but not unconquerable, and involve two distinct problems: First, the 
technical and formal aspects of word construction; second, the use of 
words as a means of expression. In this course of study, the two prob¬ 
lems parallel each other. 

No attempt is made to teach pupils to spell. If pupils have not 
learned how to spell by the time they reach the junior or senior year 
in the high school, it is doubtful if they ever will learn to spell correctly 

Use of Standard Tests 

The standard tests prescribed in this course have the following 
purposes: 

1. To disclose abilities of members of class in subject matter. 

2. As a means of diagnosing weaknesses of previous learning. 

3. As a basis for remedial instruction to correct faults of previous 
learning and to develop specific abilities. 

4. To indicate individual differences in ability or attainment. 

5. As a point of departure in conducting the class instruction. 

These tests are to be given in the manner prescribed and at the time 
prescribed. They are to be given before the class enters upon the study 
of the subject tested or they are valueless for the purposes here used. 

Report the results of these tests to this Department. We will com¬ 
pile and consolidate the results and report our results to normal training 
high schools as a tentative norm for normal training classes. 

Suggested Lesson Distribution 

The Spoken Word—one week. 

How Words are Made—two weeks. 

Acquiring a Vocabulary—one week. 

The Spelling Problem—two weeks. 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


(189) 339 


THE SPOKEN WORD 

Problem: 

One of the evidences of culture and refinement is the habitual use of 
clearly, distinctly and correctly spoken words. Training in so speak¬ 
ing is one of the problems of the elementary school and our particu¬ 
lar problem here is: 

“How to speak the English language correctly.” 

Outline of Problem: 

Pronunciation—Enunciation—Articulation—Accent—Vowels — Diph¬ 
thongs—Consonants—Diacritical Markings—Using Dictionary to 
Determine Pronunciation—Homonyms and Misspelling—Mispronun¬ 
ciation and Misspelling—Common Mistakes—Teaching Problems. 


Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Make a “never again” list in which you include words you have 
often misspelled and resolve never to misspell them again. Keep 
this list thruout the course. 

2. For individual study make a list of the words other than those 
above you commonly misspell. Continue this list thruout this 
course. 

4 

3. List twenty words you hear commonly mispronounced. 

4. What are four chief difficulties in speaking words ? 

5. What are some of the common errors in the speaking of words 
in your community? 

6. What difficulties are encountered when learning to use the dic¬ 
tionary as an aid to pronunciation? 

7. How many letters would the English language have if we had a 
character for each sound ? 

8. List in parallel columns all letters (with proper diacritical marks) 
having the same sound. 

9. Why should people speak words correctly? How can people 
learn to speak words correctly? 

10. List some of the foreign words and slang words that have be¬ 
come a legitimate part of our English vocabulary. 

Readings: 

Lewis and Holmes—Knowing and Using Words, Chapters I and If. 


340 (190) 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


Swan—Word Study for High Schools, pp. 29-34, 50-59. 

Sherman & Reed—The Essentials of Teaching Reading, Chapters 
XIV, XV. 

Driggs—Our Living Language, pp. 113-128. 

HOW WORDS ARE MADE 

The formation and construction of words is a fascinating field for 
investigation. The problem of how words are made and how they be¬ 
come parts of a language is one that has challenged the attention and 
best efforts of linguists and philologists the world over. We shall make 
but the briefest survey of this problem: 

“How are words made”? 

Outline of Problem: 

Original Words—Derivative Words — Foreign Words — Component 
Parts (root, prefix, suffix)—Determining Derivation from Dictionary— 
Form and Meaning—Euphonic Changes of Prefixes—Suffixes and 
Meaning—Suffixes and Grammar—Suffixes and Spelling—Suffixes 
and Accent—Suffixes and Euphony—Rules and Uses of Suffixes— 
Common Suffixes—Derivation and Spelling—Literal Meanings—Word 
Analysis—Word Interpretation—Rules for Spelling. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Select ten words and look up their history. 

2. Some one has said, “The most fascinating subject I have ever 

studied is ‘words’.” What do you think of this statement? 

» 

3. Make four or five familiar groups from roots not found in your 
text. 

4. What are the rules for syllabication? 

5. Show how spelling is related to grammar thru inflections. 

6. Does a knowledge of the rules of spelling contribute to good 
spelling? 

7. By combining prefixes, roots and suffixes, “make” a series of new 
words and give the literal meaning of these words. Try to make 
words that are not yet legitimate parts of the English language. 

Readings: 

Lewis and Holmes—Knowing and Using Words, Chapters III-VII. 
Swan—Word Study for High Schools, pp. 41-47, 75-89. 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


(191) 341 


ACQUIRING A VOCABULARY 

It has been said that a liberal education is very largely the acquiring 
of a liberal vocabulary. This is to some extent true, since a vocabulary 
is a means both of acquiring and expressing knowledge. Each person has 
three vocabularies, a reading vocabulary, a writing vocabulary, and a 
speaking vocabulary. The last two are commonly called the expressional 
vocabulary. We are chiefly concerned in this chapter with the problem: 
“How to acquire an expressional vocabulary.” 

Outline of Problem: 

Learning Problems—Word Construction—Word Accuracy—Slang 
Words—Reading Vocabulary—Writing Vocabulary—Speaking Vo¬ 
cabulary—Long or Short Words—Descriptive (picture) Words—Nar¬ 
rative (story telling) Words—Exactions in Expression—Nicety of 
Meaning—Synonyms—Antonyms—Definitions. 

Teaching Problems—(A) Acquisition, “Meaning and Use List”— 
Direct Method—Objective Method—Context Method—Word Analysis 
—Dictionary—Contrasting Synonyms—(B) Fixation, Defining— 
Original Written Sentences—Speaking Vocabulary—Dramatization— 
Visualization—Audition—Etymological Analysis — Functioning of 
Habit—Spelling as Memorizing. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. List ways to extend one’s vocabulary. 

2. Show a nice choice of words in some selection of prose or poetry. 

' t ' 

3. Select and analyze ten words from Driggs’ book. 

4. Which vocabulary is largest and why, reading vocabulary, writ¬ 
ing vocabulary, or speaking vocabulary? 

5. From a given excerpt in literature, select the words that can best 
be taught by (a) direct telling, (b) objective method, (c) context 
method, (d) by dictionary, (e) word analysis. 

Readings: 

Lewis and Holmes—Knowing and Using Words, Chapter VIII. 

Swan—Word Study for High Schools, pp. 35-40, 60-68. 

Klapper—The Teaching of English, Chapter X. 

Driggs—Our Living Language, Part VII. 


342 (192) 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


THE SPELLING PROGRAM 

As an evidence of culture, correct spelling is perhaps equal to cor¬ 
rect speaking. Spelling is a matter of “memorizing”, that is, of repro¬ 
ducing certain definite associations which have been formed in the past. 
We establish those associations with the intention of recalling them ex¬ 
actly as they were made. The problem in our previous chapter was how 
to acquire a vocabulary—the problem of this chapter is a necessary cor¬ 
relative, for to make this (written) vocabulary effective, we face the 
problem of: 

“How to Spell”. 

To the Normal Training Instructor: 

Give to the normal training class the Monroe Timed Sentence Spell¬ 
ing Test (Test III for grade seven and eight in high school) according 
to directions for giving a timed sentence spelling test”. FOLLOW DI¬ 
RECTIONS IMPLICITLY. Exchange papers. Score papers according to 
“instructions for marking papers and making distribution of scores”, as 
a class exercise. How does median for class compare with Monroe’s 
Standards ? 

Outline of Problem: 

General—Source of Words—Selection of Words—Gradation of 
Words—Presentation of Words—Aims of Teaching Spelling—Teach¬ 
ing vs. Testing—Spelling in Context—Spelling as Memorizing—Spell¬ 
ing in Motor Expression—Standardized Spelling Tests—Standards of 
Achievement. 

Method—Meaning—Syllabication—Special Difficulties —Visualization 
—Audition—Motor Expression—Dictation Exercises—Spelling Book 
“Never Again” List—Individual List of Words Often Misspelled— 
“Memory Groups.” 

Spelling Difficulties—Jones’ One Hundred Demons—Unphonetic 
Words—Silent Letters—Homonyms—Suffixes and Suffix Changes— 
Prefixes and Prefix Changes—Obscure Vowels—“IE” and “El”— 
“AE” and “EE”—“OU”, “AU” and “OA”—Plurals—Similar Sounds 
for Different Letters—New Words—Foreign Words—Syllabication. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Why are a person’s ordinary written exercises the best tests of 
his spelling? 

2. Why should spelling words be selected from written vocabu¬ 
laries ? 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


(193) 343 


3. A child should spell an assigned lesson before he has studied it 
and then he should study only the words he has misspelled. Do 
you agree with this statement? Give your reasons. 

4. How many words does your “never again” list now contain ? 

5. How many words does your individual list of words o^ten mis¬ 
spelled now contain? 

6. What are your pet difficulties in spelling? 

Basic Readings: 

Klapper—The Teaching of English, Chapter IX. 

Lewis and Holmes—Knowing and Using Words, Chapter X. 

Swan—Word Study for High Schools, pp. 28-34. 

Eighteenth Year Book, Chapter III. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 52-66. 

Advanced Readings: 

Freeman—Psychology of the Common Branches, Chapter VI. 

Cook and O’Shea—The Child and His Spelling. 

Suzzallo—The Teaching of Spelling. 

Buckingham—Spelling Ability; Its Measurement and Distribution. 


LIST OF REFERENCES 

*Lewis and Holmes—Knowing and Using Words, Allyn and Bacon, 
Chicago. 

fSwan—Word Study for High Schools, Macmillan Co., Chicago. 

^Eighteenth Year Book of the National Society for the Study of Edu¬ 
cation, Part II, Chapter III, Principles of Method in Teaching 
Spelling, Horn, Public School Publishing Company, Blooming¬ 
ton, Ill. 

SKlapper—The Teaching of English, D. Appleton and Company, Chi¬ 
cago. 

SSherman and Reed—Essentials of Teaching Reading, University 
Publishing Company, Lincoln. 

#Driggs—Our Living Language, How to Teach It, and How to Use It, 

University Publishing Company, Lincoln. 

• 

§Freeman—Psychology of the Common Branches, Houghton Mifflin 
Company, Chicago. 


344 ( 194 ) 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


tfParker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, Ginn and Co., 
Chicago. 

§Suzzallo—The Teaching of Spelling, Houghton Mifflin Co., Chicago. 

§Buckingham—Spelling Ability; Its Measurement and Distribution, 
Teachers College, Columbia University. 

§Cook and O’Shea—The Child and His Spelling, Bobbs-Merrill Co., 

Indianapolis. 




*One copy needed for each pupil. 

tOne copy needed for each two or three pupils. 

|Two or three copies in library for reference (Best th*«g out). 
^Available from Professional Training Library. 

§Suitable for advanced reading. 



PENMANSHIP 


By the Editor in Collaboration with Minnie G. Stump 
Supervisor Penmanship, Fremont City Schools 


34 6 


( 196 ) 


PENMANSHIP 


Penmanship 

• * 

It is probable that no other human achievement has contributed more 

to the progress of the race than the invention of a means of communica¬ 
tion without actual personal presence. The purpose of handwriting is to 
record and to communicate thought, and as such an instrument of expres¬ 
sion should be distinctly legible and performed, while maintaining a 
healthful position, with ease and expedition. Freeman says, in substance, 
that the technical efficiency to be attained in handwriting depends upon 
three things: First. the ability of the individual pupils; second, the time 
devoted to the subject (subject to the law of diminishing returns in prac¬ 
tice); third, the social demand for proficiency as compared with the de¬ 
mand for proficiency in other products of education, for this demand de¬ 
termines the amount of time the school shall devote to a subject. 

In this course the study of the principles underlying the writing 
process parallels a study of the art of executing the movements involved, 
The theory is treated in a series of projects, problems and readings seek¬ 
ing to clarify for the prospective teacher the problems encountered by the 
child in his learning to write. The art of writing is approached thru a 
series of selected drills. These drills are not selected with a view to 
teaching the Normal Training student to write—that is assumed, (as it 
is assumed that the Normal Training student can spell) but rather that 
he shall know how to drill others in the movements fundamental to good 
penmanship. 

The student is to be taught how to count for rhythmic movement both 
for himself and for others. He should count mentally for himself when 
he is practicing the drills at his seat and should have frequent opportun¬ 
ities to count for the class during the practice in the recitation period. 
The special blackboard drills, to occupy about ten minutes a day twice 
each week, cited for the first four weeks of the course, are for the pur¬ 
pose of preparing the student for the more intensive blackboard work of 
primary writing. It is suggested that the usual recitation be divided so 
as to devote about one-half of the period to group practice directed by the 
teacher, during which time the indivdual members of the class should be 
given opportunity to count for the rest of the class; the other half of the 
recitation to be devoted to the discussion of the projects, problems and 
readings. 

During the two weeks devoted to “Writing in the Primary Grades” 
practically all of the recitation period should be devoted to training the 
students to conduct writing drills; about half of the time should be spent 
at the blackboard and half at the seats. It is during these last two weeks 


PENMANSHIP 


(197) 347 


that the students should be given considerable practice in the use of the 
standard tests listed below. 

Let the teacher impress upon the class the desirability of good pen¬ 
manship, the slothfulness of poor penmanship; that the place to begin 
to learn to write well is in the primary grades but that it is never too 
late to improve. The energetic, skillful, inspiring teacher is as essential 
to good penmanship as to any other subject in the curriculum. WRITING 
WILL NOT TEACH ITSELF EVEN TO NORMAL TRAINING STU¬ 
DENTS. 


Use of Standard Tests 

The standard tests prescribed in this course have the following pur¬ 
poses: 

1. To disclose abilities of members of class in subject matter. 

2. As a means of diagnosing weaknesses of previous learning. 

3. As a basis for remedial instruction to correct faults of previous 
learning and to develop specific abilities. 

4. To indicate individual differences in ability or attainment. 

5. As a point of departure in conducting the class instruction. 

These tests are to be given in the manner prescribed and at the time 
prescribed. They are to be given before the class enters upon the study 
of the subject tested or they are valueless for the purposes here used. 

Report results (of normal training students tested by Ayres Meas¬ 
uring Scale for Handwriting) to this Department. We will compile and 
consolidate the results and report our results to normal training high 
schools as a tentative norm for normal training classes. 

Suggested Lesson Distribution 

Efficiency in Handwriting—One week. 

The Writing Process—One week. 

The Writing Machine—One week. 

Problems of Learning to Write—Three weeks. 


EFFICIENCY OF HANDWRITING 

Problem: 

The purpose of handwriting is to serve as a means of communication 
—a medium for expressing language thru written words. It is, there¬ 
fore, a tool for the expression of thought. ' Legibility and a cer- 


348 (198) 


PENMANSHIP 


tain amount of speed are the only essentials. Then, from the prac¬ 
tical point of view, our problem is: 

“What constitutes efficient writing and how can it be measured ?”* 

Outline of Problem: 

Economy of Production—Hygiene—Fluency—Subordination of Move¬ 
ment to Ideas—Conserving Energy—Speed. 

Uniformity of Recognition—Uniformity [Slant (causes of too much; 
causes of too little), Alignment]—Quality of Line (heaviness, causes; 
lightness, causes; angularity, causes; smooth; jerky; cramped; rela¬ 
tion to movement; relation to position)—Letter Formation (princi¬ 
ples; importance; typical errors; legibility; beauty)—Spacing (uni¬ 
formity of letters, of words, of lines; errors; irregularities). 

Standards cf Attainment—General (Ayres’ Scale)—Diagnostic 
(Freeman’s Chart)—Defects and Causes—(Reavis, page 72, Text). 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. According to the Ayres Scale what should be the standard of 
speed for the average pupil in each of the grades from the fifth 
to the eighth, inclusive? 

2. According to the Ayres Scale what should be the standard of 
quality for the average pupil in each of the grades from the fifth 
to the eighth, inclusive? 

3. Score a specimen of your own handwriting using Freeman’s 
Chart. 

4. What score do you give it ? 

5. By referring to Principal Reavis’ Analysis on page 72 of the text, 
determine the causes of the defects found in your own handwrit¬ 
ing (Project 2, above). (In all your handwriting, endeavor to 
remedy these defects by eliminating the causes.) 

6. If an eighth grade or high school pupil’s writing scores eighty in 
quality on the Ayres Scale, should he be required to practice fur¬ 
ther to improve the quality of his writing? How about it if his 
writing scores seventy? 

7. Diagnose and score by Freeman’s Chart, twenty specimens of 
handwriting from the sixth grade. Score these same specimens 
as to quality by Ayres’ Scale. 

8. Practice diagnosing specimens of handwriting by the use of Free- 


♦Frecman—Teaching of Handwriting. 




PENMANSHIP 


(199) 349 


man’s Chart and Ayres’ Scale for a few minutes each day dur¬ 
ing the six weeks of this course. 

Drill: 

Lessons 4, 5, and 6, Palmer Method of Business Writing. 


Basic Readings and References: 

Principles and standards: 

Freeman—The Teaching of Handwriting, Page 72; Chapter V. 
Ayres—Measuring Scale for Handwriting (Gettysburg Edition). 
Freeman—Chart for Diagnosing the Faults of Handwriting. 
Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 30-9. 

Practice: 

Palmer—Palmer Method of Business Writing, Pages 1-20. 


Advanced Readings: 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, Chapter VIII. 
Hoke and Wilson—How to Measure, Chapter III. 

(One of the above is essential for Normal Training teaching.) 


THE WRITING PROCESS 

Problem: 

Leamng to write consists primarily in the acquirement of a new 
form of expression. Because of the prominence of technical difficul¬ 
ties and problems connected with the development of the writing 
movement, it is easy to lose sight of the fact that movement is not 
an end in itself but merely a means to an end, which end is fluent 
expression. Writing has not been thoroughly learned until the writer 
can give his attention chiefly to the train of thought he is engaged in 
expressing while the mechanics of the production of the letters are 
relegated to the realm of habit. While the problem is in large part 
that of the development of efficient movement, movement is not all, 
so we are confronted by the larger problem: 

“What is fundamental to the writing process?”* 

Outline of Problem: 

Movement (fingers, arm, wrist, pronation, eyes; complexity; organ¬ 
ization; co-ordination; diffusion; relation to posture; selection and in¬ 
hibition)—Practice—Sensori-motor control (touch, movement, visual) 
—Idea Control (scope of attention)—Habituation—Writing as Ex¬ 
pression—Posture—Materials. 


♦See Freeman’s Psychology of the Common Branches. 



350 (200) 


PENMANSHIP 


Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Continue the practice of diagnosing and scoring specimens of 
handwriting. 

2. Place a copy upside down and try copying it with your left hand. 
(With right hand if left-handed.) Is it a simple process ? When 
you retire tonight try writing with your toes. Is it a simple 
process? What defects are found in such writing? 

3. How many separate movements do you make in writing the word 
“dog”? 

4. When you write across a page does the back of your hand turn 
away from your body? (Watch top of your pencil.) Why? 
Do your fingers move? Does your wrist rotate? 

5. Write the letter “p”. When and where is the pressure greatest 
on the pencil? 

6. Try writing the word “cat” upside down with your eyes shut. 
Try it again with your eyes open and with a copy placed upside 
down where you can see it. What part does vision play in hand¬ 
writing ? 

7. Try writing the word “cat” while you are thinking of the word 
“dog”. How does the word image in your mind affect your writ¬ 
ing? 

8. Without the aid of the other hand touch the first and fourth fin¬ 
gers between the second and third fingers with the second finger 
below and the third finger above. Now touch the first and fourth 
fingers between the second and third with the third finger below 
and the second finger above. Alternate this movement rapidly. 
Is there any diffusion of nervous energy? (Do the fingers wiggk 
about while trying this experiment? Watch some one else do it 
Does he twist his mouth or make any other unnecessary move¬ 
ments?) 

9. Read Chapter 2 in Freeman, The Teaching of Handwriting. Is 
writing as simple as you thought it? Have you more sympathy 
now than before for children learning to write for the first time ? 

10. Define movement. 

11. Why should the teacher count for pupils writing? 

12. Give a brief history of writing. (Economy Manual, page 1.) 

Drill: 

Lessons 7 and 8; lesson 9; lesson 11; lessons 12 and 14; lessons 15 

and 16; Palmer Method of Business Writing. 


PENMANSHIP 


(201) 351 


Special Black Board Drill: 

Capitals “W” and “H” and the capitals “T”, “F” and “K”. (Palmer 
Method Writing Lessons for Primary Grades, pages 55, 56, 58, 59, 61.) 

Basic Readings: 

Freeman—The Teaching of Handwriting, Chapters I and II. 
Economy Manual—How to Teach Writing. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 21-9. 

Advanced Readings: 

Freeman—Psychology of the Common Branches, Chapter II. 


HYGIENE OF WRITING 

Problem: 

Since not only the writing arm is involved in the execution of the 
writing movement, it is essential that those other parts of the body 
functioning in the writing process as a whole be considered. This 
seems to center in the problems of the “Hygiene of posture and the 
hygiene of vision in writing”. 

Outline of Problem: 

Correct Seating—Posture Defects and How to Avoid Them—Effect of 
Posture on Writing—Adjustment of Desks—Protecting the Eye—• 
Nervous Strain of Movement—Influence of Rhythm—“Writer’s 
Cramp”. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Try standing perfectly still for five minutes. (Do not move even 
the eyes.) 

2. Do you agree with Freeman’s statement concerning the ideal 
posture ? 

3. What defects in posture do you note among members of the class 
while writing? 

4. Visit one of the grades and make same observation. What are 
the apparent causes of these defects and how can they be reme¬ 
died? 

5. Raise the bottom of a page you are reading higher than the top. 
What must you do to see the type more clearly? What does this 
teach with regard to the tilt of the deck? 


352 (202) 


PENMANSHIP 


6. Holding a book in a vertical plane parallel to the plane of the 
body, turn the right edge of the page toward your eye and the 
left edge away. Do you experience any eye strain? 

7. Turn the top of the page you are reading toward the left. What 
must you do to see the type clearly? 

8. Grasp the pencil very hard with your left hand and write several 
lines. What happens? 

9. What do each of the above projects teach you concerning the 
physiology and hygiene of writing? 

10. What should be done with the left-handed pupil? 

Drill: 

Lessons 19 and 20; lessons 24, 25 and 27; lessons 29 and 30; lessons 
32 and 33; lessons 35 and 38, Palmer Method of Business Writing. 

Special Blackboard Drill: 

Capitals “E” and“B”; capital “D” Palmer Method of Writing for 
Primary Grades. 

Basic Readings: 

Freeman—The Teaching of Handwriting, Chapter III. 

Advanced Readings: 

Terman—The Hygiene of the School Child, Chapters VII and XIV. 


LEARNING TO WRITE 

Problem: 

In the second chapter of this course, we learned that writing is a 
motor habit—organization of a multitude of simple movements in the 
complex co-ordinated whole; that this motor habit (writing) is effi¬ 
cient only when the movement involved proceeds readily in express¬ 
ing ideas without the necessity of being directed in detail. We are 
next confronted with the problem: 

“How is control of the writing process acquired?” 

Outline of Problem: 

General—(A) Good Form—Position of Hand—Fingers—Wrist—Arm 
—Pen—Paper—Posture—(B) Mastering Movement—Trial and Er¬ 
ror-Selection and Inhibition—Attentive Repetition—Plateaus-Prac- 


PENMANSHIP 


(203) 353 


tice (frequency, length of periods)—Imitation (of form; of copy) — 
Co-ordination—Habituation—Rhythm and Counting—Speed—Accur¬ 
acy—Analysis of Letters—Letter Group—Practice—Style—Defects 
(causes and remedies)—Automatic Control—Standards of Achieve¬ 
ment—Special Problems of Upper Grade Writing. 

Primary Writing—Gaining Control of Movement—Drill and Error— 
Imitation of both Form and Movement—Making the Letter Forms— 
Combining and Organizing Movement—Physiology and Hygiene of 
Primary Writing—Writing as Thought Expression—Blackboard 
Work—Standards of Speed and Accuracy—Age and Accomplishment 
—Formal Drills. 


Suggestions 

During the last two weeks the formal practice from the Palmer Meth¬ 
od of Business Wrtiing is to be abandoned during the recitation period 
and the time devoted to the drills selected from The Palmer Method Writ¬ 
ing Lessons for Primary Grades. 

Rule the blackboard as suggested in Walker’s Method of Functional 
Writing. Let part of the class be primary pupils directed by other mem¬ 
bers of the class acting as teachers following the instructions given in 
the Teacher’s Guide. 

The “Tit-Tat-Toe” exercise is made thus: # This form should be 
retraced several times. 

The movement exercise on page nine of the Primary Lessons which 
is sometimes found difficult and uninteresting may be made a delight by 
first teaching it as a game, making the exercise to the rhythm of this 
little verse: 

Roll-ee poll-ee 
Round and round, 

Up and down 
And up and down! 

It is essential that the teacher memorize the descriptive counts so 
that the pupils may be directed rhythmically and with ease. 

Remember that motivated repetition and purposeful drill on any 
movement will make its execution automatic. If teacher and pupil con¬ 
scientiously observe this, and if they constantly observe rhythmic move¬ 
ment and the required speed, then, and then only, will words be written 
and not “carved”. 

Projects and Related Problems: 

1. Score twenty new specimens of handwriting from the seventh 
grade. Diagnose and score these specimens by Freeman’s Chart. 


354 ( 204 ) 


PENMANSHIP 


Score them again by Ayres Scale. Can yon do better than when 
you first attempted this sort of project? 

2. Observe the normal training teacher or some grade teacher give 
a speed test to one of the grades from the fifth to the eighth 
inclusive. Score papers and compare with Ayres Standard. 

3. When a girl throws a baseball does she show good form? How 
about a boy sewing a button? 

4. How many pupils do you observe in the room that have the 
wrong position of hand, arm, pen or paper? 

5. How long did it take to learn to skate, to swim, to ride a bicycle ? 
Do you see any analogy between the learning of these processes 
and the learning of the process of writing? 

6. Try again the ‘‘stunt” suggested in Project 6 under the “Writing 
Process”. Have you eliminated any errors ? Practice this every 
day for the next two weeks and note elimination of errors. Will 
you need much repetition to perfect this “stunt” ? Must you 
pay strict attention to the movement you are making? Do you 
strike any “plateaus” in mastering this movement? Does this 
indicate to you somewhat the difficulty encountered by the child 
in learning to write? 

7. What specific difficulties do you encounter in your own hand¬ 
writing ? 

8. Analyze your own handwriting and note if the defects therein 
are caused as Mr. Reavis suggests they are caused. 

9. How long can you practice without the diminishing of attention? 

10. Why is the teacher so important a factor in the learning of 
handwriting ? 

11. Count the “chugs” of a rapidly moving locomotive. Do you count 
these “chugs” in groups of twos, threes, or fours, or in a steady 
dead level of successive ones? 

12. While the phonograph is playing tap out of time. “Without 
thinking” would you tap in time or out of time ? 

13. Is it easy for you to walk out of step with the band ? 

14. What hints do you receive from these projects as to the value 
of rhythm of movement? 

15. Compare the style of alphabet in each of the various texts. 
Which is most pleasing to you ? Which is most widely used ? 


PENMANSHIP 


(205) 355 


16. Which of your writing is the better and why, your practice copy 
or a copy of your other written work? 

17. When you are writing a letter do you think only of the words 
of the individual letters in the word, or of the separate parts of 
the letter? What hint does this give you as to the value of 
habits in writing? 

18. How should the paper be shifted and why shift the paper? 

19. What part of each letter is made on the general slant of writing? 

20. Review Projects and Related Problems under the “Writing Pro¬ 
cess”. 

21. Observe kindergarteners or first grade pupils trying to write. 

a. Analyze the separate movements the child makes. 

b. Cite instances of diffusion of nervous energy. 

c. Cite instances of good and bad posture. 

d. Cite instances of good and bad position of paper, pencil, hand, 
arm. (If these pupils are writing at their seats.) 

22. Observe a fourth or fifth grade. 

a. Note how habit has co-ordinated movement. 

b. How habit has made writing a form of expression. 

\ 

Drill: 

General: 

Lessons 44, 45 and 46; lessons 47 and 48; lessons 49, 50 and 51; 
lessons 54 and 56; lessons 58 and 59, Palmer Method of Business 
Writing. 

Special Blackboard Drill: 

Capitals “V”, “Y” and “U”; capitals “Z”, “Q” and “X”. 

Palmer Method of Writing for Primary Grades. 

Special Primary: 

Pages 12, 13 and 14; pages 15 and 16; pages 17, 18 and 19; pages 20 
and 21; pages 26 and 27; page 30; pages 51 and 52, Palmer Method 
of Writing for Primary Grades. 

Basic Readings: 

Eighteenth Year Book of National Society for the Study of Educa¬ 
tion, Chapter I. 

Freeman—The Teaching of Handwriting, Chapter IV. 

Parker—Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 14-21. 


356 (206) 


PENMANSHIP 


Advanced Readings: 

Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, Chapter VIII. 
Freeman—Psychology of the Common Branches, Chapter I. 
Thompson—Psychology and Pedagogy of Writing. 


REFERENCES 

*Freeman—The Teaching of Handwriting, Houghton Mifflin Com¬ 
pany, Chicago. 

*Palmer Method of Business Writing. 

*Palmer Method of Writing Lessons for Primary Grades. 

^Teachers’ Guide to Writing Lessons for Primary Grades (Palmer), 
The A. N. Palmer Company, Cedar Rapids, la. 

JFreeman—Psychology of the Common Branches, Houghton Mifflin 
Company. 

§Hoke and Smith—How to Measure, Macmillan Company, Chicago. 

^Eighteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Edu¬ 
cation, Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. 

fClark—Public School Penmanship, Ginn and Company, Chicago. 

fWalker’s Method of Functional Writing, H. C. Walker, St. Louis. 

fEconomy Manual, How to Teach Writing, Laurel Book Company, 
Chicago. 

Thompson—Psychology and Pedagogy of Writing, Warwick & York, 
New York. 

*fAyres’—Measuring Scale for Handwriting, Bureau of Educational 
Research, University of Nebraska. 

*fFreeman—Chart for Diagnosing the Faults of Handwriting, Bu¬ 
reau of Educational Research, Lincoln, or Houghton Mifflin Company. 

^[Monroe—Measuring the Results of Teaching, Houghton Mifflin 
Company. 


♦Basic Books—One required for each member of the class. 
^Fundamental References—One copy should be in the library, 
tInteresting Supplementary Material. 

♦•(■Standardized Scales—One of each required. 

§One of these books is required for the Normal Training teacher. 



AGRICULTURE 


C. W. WATSON 

Formerly 

State Director of Vocational Agriculture 


358 (5) 


AGRICULTURE 


Agriculture 

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

“Lord Bacon, a noted English philosopher, was at one time much 
interested in agriculture. He collected and read carefully many books 

on the subject. When he had finished the books, he ordered his servant 
to take them into the garden and burn them, because they dealt with the 

art or practices of agriculture and contained no principles. 

In modern agriculture, art and science are combined. As an art, 
agriculture is complex and involves a study of the best practices con¬ 
nected with the field, the orchard, the garden, the barn, the feed-yard, 
and the dairy. But to understand the principles underlying these prac¬ 
tices, to know why one practice is better than another, or to develop the 
practices which are better than those now in use, it is necessary to have 
some knowledge of almost every science known to man.”* 

“The demand for the teaching of agriculture in the public schools is 
growing stronger all the time. . . . This is in response to the very 
general demand for more practical instruction. The feeling exists that 
the schools have been doing work too remote from real life; and that 
where the work has touched the life at all, it has been the city side or 
the commercial side rather than the productive side and the industrial 
side of life. Such training tends to lead all, or nearly all, away from 
rather than toward the industrial and productive callings. 

The interest in rural life should be kept up by the training received 
.... in all schools. A proper conception of the opportunities afforded 
in the country should be in the minds of all young people—whether they 
live in the cities or in the country. The productive wealth of the nation 

is from the country, not from the city. All young people should 

learn of the opportunities for health, independence, happiness, and wealth 
afforded by the country.”t 

In this course an attempt has been made to approach the problem of 
teaching agriculture from the production point of view. In so large a 
field but a meager list of the possible problems and topics can be con¬ 
sidered. Here are considered a few of those problems and topics per¬ 
tinent to productive farming in Nebraska. 

No distribution of the time given each project is suggested since 
different sections of the state will demand fuller treatment of some 
subjects than others. 


•Waters —The Essentials of Agriculture. 
fDavis —Productive Farming. 




AGRICULTURE 


( 6 ) 359 


For this course the Department is indebted to C. W. Watson, for¬ 
merly Director of Smith-Hughes Vocational Agriculture in Nebraska, and 
hereby expresses its appreciation to him. 

The examinations required by law for a second grade county cer¬ 
tificate will be based on this outline. 


A. L. B. 






360 (7) 


AGRICULTURE 


Agriculture 


THE AIM IN TEACHING AGRICULTURE 

Agriculture, in the main, is taught from one of two standpoints, 
namely, informational or vocational. It is realized that either may lead 
to culture. In most so-called courses in “general agriculture” the aim is 
principally informational. In the so-called Smith-Hughes schools, the 
aim is principally vocational, i. e., it is assumed that the student is pre¬ 
paring to enter the vocation of farming. The normal training student 
who is taking agriculture is doing so presumably for two reasons; name¬ 
ly, that he may be informed as to agricultural procedure, that he in 
turn may teach boys and girls from the farms, many of whom will re¬ 
main on farms, and also that he may learn by precept, observation and 
practice, how best to teach it. In the outlines that follow attempt has 
been made to reconcile these various aims. 


Outlining the Course 

In determining what to teach an analysis of what the farmer himself 
wants and needs to know was made. Such an analysis, we hope, has 
tended to include the practical and to exclude the impractical. 

All of the major farm enterprises of Nebraska, each outlined as a 
project, are included in the outline. It is not intended that each school 
shall give the same amount of emphasis to each enterprise. Corn un¬ 
doubtedly will receive major consideration in eastern Nebraska, and de- 
creasingly less emphasis toward the western part of the state. Also 
sugar beets will be stressed in the irrigated sections of the state, but 
receive minor consideration elsewhere. At the opening of the semester 
each local school will determine what enterprises are to be studied and 
the amount of time available to each. 

Method of Teaching 

Agriculture lends itself to teaching by the project method. The 
following may indicate the significance attached to the term project as 
here used; namely, a project is a method of procedure in learning by 
which “they (pupils) consciously set up a purpose, make plans to ac¬ 
complish that purpose, execute the plans, and finally measure the re¬ 
sults of their work by comparing them with their original purpose and 
plans”. It is not implied that each student should carry out each pro¬ 
ject, but the teacher should proceed on the assumption that he will. 
If possible, each pupil should carry out one project. 



AGRICULTURE 


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Each farm enterprise forms the basis for a project in agriculture. 
Each enterprise naturally divides itself into certain comprehensive un¬ 
dertakings, which, because of the lack of better nomenclature, are de¬ 
signated as sub-projects. Each project and its sub-projects present to 
the student many problems, or “intellectual difficulties”, which are listed 

in most instances under the sub-projects. No attempt has been made in 
the outlines to definitely separate “problems” and “topics”. It is implied 
rather that each “topic” will be considered from the standpoint of a 
'‘problem”. 

Laboratory in agriculture can not be confined to the four walls of a 
school room. Much field observation and practice are necessary. When 
possible, therefore, “seasonal sequence” should determine the order of 
procedure. When not possible, regular indoor laboratory demonstrations 
and practicums, as with other sciences, must be improvised. 

With the various text and laboratory guides available, the resource¬ 
ful teacher should have no difficulty in providing adequate laboratory 
work. 


THE COURSE OUTLINED BY PROJECTS 

INTRODUCTORY 

Note—The outline of this introductory phase of the subject can not 
of necessity be exhaustive. A few only of the many possible problems 
are mentioned. Where local conditions make it seem advisable, other 
problems and topics will suggest themselves to the resourceful teacher. 
It is suggested that not to exceed two weeks be devoted to this Intro¬ 
ductory section. 

I. The nature and origin of soil. Study in the field. 

II. The classes and sub-classes of soils according to method of for¬ 
mation, and the agricultural importance of each. Study in the 
field. 

III. Soil texture and its agricultural significance. Soil particles and 
the kinds of soils according to texture. How texture may be im¬ 
proved. 

IV. Soil structure and its agricultural significance. How to secure a 
good tilth. 

V. Forms in which water exists in the soil and the agricultural im¬ 
portance of each form. How to secure and maintain proper mois¬ 
ture conditions. 

VI. Soil bacteria and their agricultural significance. 

VII. The chemical composition of soils and the relation of the different 
elements to plant production. Methods of maintaining soil fertility. 


362 (9) 


AGRICULTURE 


Readings: 

Gehrs—Productive Agriculture, Appropriate Studies in Part III and 
Chapter XXXIII of Part V. 

Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture, Appropriate Studies in 
Chapters V-XII. 

Moore and Halligan—Plant Production, Chapter I. 

THE PROJECT OF GROWING CORN 

Introductory. 

Problems and topics: 

The history, importance and distribution of com as a farm product. 
Sub-project I. Selecting the variety and seed. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Why is good seed important? 

2. How are corn varieties developed and improved? 

3. What types and varieties are best adapted to this community 

and why? 

4. By what method should seed corn be selected? 

5. Is it good practice to buy seed away from home community? 

6. When Is corn good for seed? 

Laboratory: 

1. Know the corn plant. 

2. Identification of types and varieties. 

3. Judging corn for seed. 

4. Selecting seed corn in the field. 

Sub-project II. Storing the seed. 

Problems and topics: 

1. When to store seed. 

2. Where to store seed. 

3. By what “method” store seed. 

4. Protection from rodents and insects. 

Laboratory: 

Construct different devices for storing seed corn and demonstrate 
the use of each device. 

Sub-project III. Testing the seed. 

Problems and topics: 


AGRICULTURE 


(10) 363 


1. Why is testing important? 

2. What are the conditions necessary to a reliable test? 

3. What are the devices best adapted to easy and reliable testing? 

4. When should the test be made? 

Laboratory: 

Construct different devices for testing and demonstrate the use of 
each. 

Sub-project IV. Preparing the seed for planting. 

Problems and topics: 

How and why should corn be prepared for planting? 

Laboratory: 

Butt, tip, shell and grade some seed corn. 

Sub-project V. Preparing the seed bed. 

Problems and topics: 

1. What are the characteristics of a good seed bed? 

2. Is it best to fall or spring plow? 

3. How may a good seed bed be secured? 

4. What machinery is commonly used in preparing the seed bed 

and how is each machine operated? 

Laboratory: 

Visit implement store to study machinery. 

Sub-project VI. Planting the corn. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Should one drill or check corn and why? 

2. Which is preferable, listing or surface planting, and why? 

3. When should corn be planted? 

4. At what depth should corn be planted? 

5. How thick should corn be planted? 

6. When is replanting needed and how should it be done? 
Laboratory: 

1. Examine both a planter and a lister and if possible, demonstrate 

the operation of each. 

2. Block a planter and demonstrate the value of grading seed corn. 


364 (11) 


AGRICULTURE 


Sub-project VII. Controlling insect pests. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Life history of the common cut worm and army worm—how they 

attack corn—methods of control. 

2. Life history of grasshopper—how it attacks corn—methods of 

control. 

Laboratory: 

1. By drawing illustrate the life histories of the cut worm and the 

grasshopper. 

2. If possible, study each insect at different stages of development. 

Sub-project VIII. Cultivating the corn. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Why should corn be cultivated? 

2. How should corn be cultivated? 

3. How often should corn be cultivated? 

4. What are the most common types of cultivation and the advan¬ 

tages and disadvantages of each? 

5. What is the source of water supply to the corn plant, and how 

best maintain a constant supply? 

Laboratory: 

1. Examine root system of corn plant to determine effect of depth 

and closeness of cultivation. 

2. Demonstrate capillarity with different types of soils. 

3. Examine different types of cultivators. 

Sub-project IX. Harvesting corn. 

Problems and topics: 

1. What are the methods of harvesting most commonly practiced 

and their relative values? 

2. When should corn be harvested? 

3. Storing, shredding, shelling. 


Sub-project X. Marketing the corn. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Relative values of selling on the market and consuming on the 
home farm. 


AGRICULTURE 


(12) 365 


2. How is the market price of corn determined? 

3. Price fluctuations from year to year and from month to month. 

4. How do prices compare at Omaha and at other markets? 

5. What are the factors that determine when a farmer should sell 

his corn? 

6. The “market” grades of corn and the characteristics of each. 
Laboratory: 

1. Make a graph showing daily price fluctuations on the Omaha 

market. 

2. Make a graph showing average monthly price fluctuations on the 

Omaha market for a number of years. 

3. Determine moisture content of samples of corn to determine 

probable effect of storage on keeping. 

Basic Readings: 

Gehrs—Productive Agriculture, Chapter II. 

Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture, Chapters II-III; XIII. 
Moore and Halligan—Plant Production, Chapters II-III. 

Advanced Readings: 

Gehrs—Principles of Agriculture, Chapters I and III. 

Livingston—Field Crops Production, Chapter III, and Chapter !V. 

Wilson and Warburton—Field Crops, Chapter III. 

Montgomery—Productive Farm Crops, Chapters VI to XII, inclusive; 
also Chapter XIV. 

PROJECT OF GROWING A SMALL GRAIN 

Note—It is realized that teachers will not have enough time to teach 
each small grain in detail. This outline follows wheat more closely than 
any other grain. Certain comparisons for oats and barley are suggested. 
Other possible ones will suggest themselves. 

Introductory. 

Problems and topics: 

The history, importance and distribution of wheat and other small 
grains as farm products. 

Sub-project I. Choosing the variety and seed. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Types of wheat and their adaptations to soil, climate and market 
demands. Compare oats and barley. 


366 (13) 


AGRICULTURE 


2. How may small grain varieties be improved? 

3. What are the desirable characteristics of good wheat? (Consider 

entire plant.) Compare oats and barley. 

4. The varieties of wheat best adapted to Nebraska. Also oats and 

barley. (Consult county agricultural agent.) 

5. “Certified” seed and how to secure it in your community. (Con¬ 

sult county agricultural agent.) 

6. Characteristics of good seed. 

Laboratory: 

1. Characteristics of plants of wheat, oats, barley. 

2. Examine different kinds of grains to become familiar with the 

characteristics of the most common types and varieties. 

3. Examine wheat, oats and barley for their gluten content. Com¬ 

pare with corn. 

Sub-project II. Preparing the seed bed. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Compare the seed beds desirable for corn, wheat and oats. 

2. Is it preferable to plow early or late? Why? 

3. To what extent will such factors as soil type and wind affect 

preparation of seed bed? 

4. The use of manures and other fertilizers. 

Laboratory: 

1. Examine samples of different kinds of fertilizers. 

2. If possible, teacher may demonstrate to class chemical compo¬ 

sition of different fertilizers. 

Sub project III. Preparing the seed for sowing. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Cleaning the seed—common adulterants; best method; economic 

importance. 

2. Life history of the smuts (loose and stinking)—how they attack 

wheat—methods of control. Compare oats and barley. 

3. Life history of the rusts—how they attack wheat. How to con¬ 

trol them. (Eradication of common barberry. Learn to 
distinguish from Japanese barberry.) Compare oats and 
barley. 

Laboratory: 

1. Illustrate with drawings the life histories of the smuts and rusts. 


AGRICULTURE 


(14) 367 


2. Examine samples of affected grains to learn to identify the smuts 

and rusts. 

3. Demonstrate the treatment of seed with solution of formaldehyde. 

Sub-project IV. The control of insect enemies. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The life history of the Hessian fly—how it attacks wheat—meth¬ 

ods of control. 

2. The life history of the chinch bug—how it attacks wheat—meth¬ 

ods of control. 

3. How the grasshopper attacks wheat—methods of combating. 
Laboratory: 

1. Illustrate with drawings tlie life history of each of the fore¬ 

going insects. 

2. If possible, study each insect at different stages of development. 

Sub-project V. Sowing wheat. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Method of sowing. Compare oats and barley. 

2. Time of sowing—depth of sowing. Compare oats and barley. 

3. Moisture conditions. 

Sub-project VI. Intertillage and pasturing wheat. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The advisability of intertillage (rolling or harrowing). Compare 

oats and barley. 

2. The advisability of pasturing wheat. Compare oats and barley. 

Sub-project VII. Harvesting and threshing wheat. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Methods of harvesting. 

2. Proper time to harvest. 

3. Why wheat is shocked, and how these desirable results may be 

obtained. 

4. The advisability of threshing from the shock or from the stack. 

Sub-project VIII. Storing wheat. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The advisability of storing or selling from the machine. 


368 (15) 


AGRICULTURE 


2. Protection from rodents and insects. 

Sub-project IX. Marketing wheat. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The advisability of feeding wheat to livestock. Compare oats and 

barley. 

2. How is the market price of wheat determined? Note the influ¬ 

ence of production in foreign countries. Compare oats and 
barley. 

3. Price fluctuation from year to year and month to month. 

4. How do prices compare at Omaha and other markets? 

5. What are the factors that determine when a farmer should sell 

his wheat? 

6. The market grades of wheat and characteristics of each. 
Laboratory: 

1. Make a graph showing daily price fluctuation on the Omaha mar¬ 

ket. 

2. Make a graph showing average monthly price fluctuations on 

Omaha market for a number of years. 

3. Demonstrate the grading of wheat according to federal standards. 

Basic Readings: 

Gehrs—Productive Agriculture, Chapters I and III. 

Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture, Chapter XIV. 

Moore and Halligan—Plant Production, Chapters IV; V; VI; VII; IX. 

Advanced Readings: 

Gehrs—Principles of Agriculture, Chapters II and IV. 

Livingston—Field Crops Production, Chapters V to VIII, inclusive. 
Wilson and Warburton—Field Crops, Chapters IV to VIII, inclusive. 

Montgomery—Productive Farm Crops, Chapters XV to XXIV, in¬ 
clusive. 

PROJECT OF GROWING ALFALFA, CLOVER OR OTHER 

LEGUMES 

Introductory. 

Problems and topics: 

* 

The history, importance and distribution of alfalfa, and other le¬ 
gumes, as farm products. 


AGRICULTURE 


(16) 369 


» 


Sub-project I. Selecting the legumes, the variety, the seed. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Adaptation of the different types and varieties of legumes to soil, 

topography, climate, drainage. The varieties best adapted 
locally. (Consult county agricultural agent.) 

2. Purpose for which legumes are grown and the adaptation of the 

different types and varieties to these purposes. Note par¬ 
ticularly nitrogen fixation. 

3. Characteristics of good seed. 

Laboratory: 

1. Characteristics of plants of alfalfa and clover. 

2. Identification of seeds of the different legumes and varieties of 

common seed adulterants. 

3. Examination of root tubercles. 

4. Testing seed for viability. 


Sub-project II. Preparing seed bed. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Characteristics of good seed bed for legumes. How best se¬ 

cured? Compare with corn and small grains. 

2. Liming when necessary. 

3. The use of manure as a fertilizer. 

Laboratory: 

Test samples of various soils for acidity. 

Sub-project III. Sowing the seed. 

Problems and topics: 

1. How to inoculate when necessary. 

2. Advisability of using a nurse crop. 

3. The best time to seed. 

4. The method, depth and rate of seeding. 


Sub-project IV. Harvesting the hay crop. 

Problems and topics: 

1. When and how often should the crop be harvested? 

2. Best method of harvesting and the effect of harvesting upon the 

value of the crop. 

3. Pasturing the legumes. 


370 (17) 


4 


AGRICULTURE 


Sub-project V. Harvesting the seed crop. 

Problems and topics: 

1. What crop is usually harvested for seed? 

2. Best method of harvesting the seed. 

Sub-project VI. Marketing the crop. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Advisability of marketing or feeding. 

2. Preparing the hay for the market. 

3. Best time to market the hay. 

4. Best time to market the seed. 

Laboratory: 

1. Graph Omaha market fluctuation for alfalfa hay. 

2. Graph market fluctuations for both alfalfa and clover seed. 

Basic Readings: 

Gehrs—Productive Agriculture, Chapters IV to VII. 

Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture, Chapter XVII. 

Moore and Halligan—Plant Production, Chapters X-XI. 

Advanced Readings: 

Gehrs—Principles of Agriculture, Chapters VI to IX. 
Livingston—Field Crops Production, Chapters XIII to XVI. 
Wilson and Warburton—Field Crops, Chapters XVII to XX. 
Montgomery—Productive Farm Crops, Chapters XL to XLIII. 

PROJECT OF GROWING A HOME GARDEN 
Introductory. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Why a vegetable garden should be grown. 

2. Location and size of the garden. 

3. What vegetables to grow and why. 

Sub-project I. Preparing the seed bed. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Fall preparation: clearing, fertilizing, plowing. 

2. Spring preparation: smoothing, pulverizing. 


AGRICULTURE 


(18) 371 


Laboratory: 

Field trips to study above. 

Sub-project II. Planning and platting. 

Problems and topics: 

Factors that determine the plan best to use: soil, drainage, slope, 
shade, rotation, companionship, succession. 

Laboratory: 

Make survey of home garden and draw plan to scale. 

Sub-prcject III. Procuring seed or plants. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Reliability of popular seed houses. 

2. Advisability of growing seeds and plants or buying them. 

3. The storage of home grown seed. 

4. Testing seeds for germination. 

5. Construction of the cold frame or hot bed. 

Laboratory: 

1. Compare catalogs of popular seed houses to determine relative 

reliability. 

2. Test seeds for germination. 

3. Field trip to 'study cold frame or hot bed. 

4. Better construct cold frame or hot bed and grow plants at 

school or homes. 

Sub-project IV. Planting the garden. 

Problems and topics: 

Note—These will vary with kinds of vegetables grown. Study the 
most common vegetables as types. 

1. Time, depth and rate of seeding. 

2. Transplanting. 

Sub-project V. Taking care of the garden. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Irrigation: time, method, frequency. 

2. Cultivation: time, depth, method, frequency. 

3. Staking such vegetables as peas, beans, tomatoes. 

4. Pruning tomatoes: method, advantages and disadvantages. 


372 (19) 


AGRICULTURE 


5. Controlling injurious insects and fungus diseases—sprays and 
poisons to use, preparation and application of the sprays 
and poisons, precautions. 

Laboratory: 

1. Demonstrate proper cultivation. 

2. Demonstrate different methods of staking. 

3. Stake and prune tomatoes and compare results with plants not 

staked or pruned. 

4. Prepare and apply different sprays and poisons. 

Sub-project VI. Harvesting and marketing. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Freshness and stage ol ripeness for immediate use, canning or 

marketing. 

2. How to prepare, bunch and crate different vegetables for the 

market. 

Laboratory: 

Prepare and can vegetables by the “cold-pack” method. Choose 
types. 

Basic Readings: 

Gehrs—Productive Agriculture, Chapter XXV. 

Gehrs—Principles of Agriculture, Chapter XXXIII. 

Moore and Halligan—Plant Production, Chapters XIII; XVI; XVII- 
XVIII. 


PROJECT OF GROWING POTATOES 

Note—The advisability of growing potatoes as a major farm enter¬ 
prise is determined by such factors as climate, soil, market, personal 
adaptability, competitive crops and labor supply. When potatoes are 
grown for home use this project should receive relatively shorter time. 

Introductory. 

Problems and topics: 

The history and importance of potatoes as a farm product. 

Sub-project I. Selecting the variety and seed. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The common varieties and their adaptation to Nebraska condi¬ 
tions and market demands. 


AGRICULTURE 


(20) 373 


2. The best method of selecting seed. Consider the relative merits 

of hill selection, buying home or foreign grown seed, and 
maintaining a seed plat. 

3. The characteristics of good seed potatoes. 

Laboratory: 

Identification of the common varieties. 

Sub-project II. Preparing the seed bed. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The selection of the field. Consider freedom from diseases, soil 

structure, texture, drainage and fertility. 

2. Characteristics of a desirable seed bed. How secured? 

3. Application of manure and other fertilizers. 

Sub-project III. Preparing the seed. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Potato scab—how it develops—methods of control. 

2. How to cut potatoes. 

Laboratory: 

1. Examine tubers affected with scab. Illustrate with drawings. 

2. Demonstrate the proper method of cutting potatoes of different 

sizes and shapes. 

Sub-project IV. Planting. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Proper depth, spacing, and time. 

2. Methods of planting. 

Sub-project V. Intertillage. 

Problems and topics: 

Methods of intertillage and their relative merits. 

Sub-project VI. Treating for diseases or insects. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Types of spraying machines and their relative merits. 

2. Life history of the potato beetle—how it affects the potato— 

methods of control. 

3. Blight—how it develops and affects potatoes—methods of control. 



374 (21) 


AGRICULTURE 


Laboratory: 

1. Examine plants affected with blight—illustrate with drawings. 

2. Illustrate life history of potato beetle. 

3. Demonstrate spraying. 

Sub-project VII. Irrigating (when practiced). 

Problems and topics: 

When to irrigate—amount of water to use—proper method—subse¬ 
quent cultivation. 

Sub-project VIII. Harvesting. 

Problems and topics: 

1. When to harvest. 

2. Method of harvesting. 

Sub-project IX. Storing. 

Problems and topics: 

Desirable storage conditions—type of cellar—temperature—ventila 
tion—sanitation. 

Sub-project X. Marketing. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Market grades—characteristics—advantages of grading. 

2. How best to market potatoes. 

Laboratory: 

Visit local potato market to observe market grades and method of 
inspection. 

Basic Readings: 

Gehrs—Productive Agriculture, Chapter XXVI. 

Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture, Chapter XIX. 

Moore and Halligan—Plant Production, Chapter XIII. 

Advanced Readings: 

Gehrs—Principles of Agriculture, Chapter V. 

Livingston—Field Crops Production, Chapter XX. 

Wilson and Warburton—Field Crops, Chapter XXII. 

Montgomery—Productive Farm Crops, Chapter XXX. 


AGRICULTURE 


(22) 375 


PROJECT OF GROWING SUGAR BEETS 

Note—The advisability of growing sugar beets is determined by such 
factors as nearness to factory, climate, soil, personal adaptability, labor 
supply, availability of irrigation water, etc. When not a major enter¬ 
prise of the community, this project should receive relatively shorter 
time. 

Introductory. 

Problems and topics: 

The history and importance of sugar beets as a farm crop. 

Sub-project I. Contracting with sugar manufacturing company. 

Problems and topics: 

Form of contract and the points commonly covered as acreage, rate 
of seeding, delivery, payment, weighing and testing. 

Laboratory: 

1. Examination of contracts made by farmers of the community. 

2. Secure contract form from the local sugar company and have 

each student draw contract for home farm. 

Sub-project II. Preparing seed bed. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Maintenance of yield by the application of manures and other 

fertilizers, alfalfa and other crops in rotation, and proper ir¬ 
rigation. 

2. Characteristics of a desirable seed bed and the necessary mois¬ 

ture conditions. 

3. How to secure the seed bed. 

Sub-project III. Seeding. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Securing the seed. 

2. Depth of seeding and proper spacing of rows. 

3. Method of seeding. 

Sub-project IV. Intertillage. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The purpose of intertillage. 

2. The different methods as cultivating, blocking, thinning, hoeing 

and weeding. 


376 (23) 


AGRICULTURE 


Sub-project V. Irrigating. 

Problems and topics: 

1. When, how much, and how often to apply water. 

2. The dangers of excessive drought or irrigation. 

3. How to prepare furrows. 

4. How to apply water. 

5. The purpose of and time for the subsequent cultivations. 

Sub-project VI. Harvesting Beets. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The proper time to harvest. 

2. How lift the beets. 

3. How to top the beets. 

Sub-project VII. Marketing beets. 

Problems and topics: 

Hauling, weighing and testing. 

Sub-project VIII. Using the by-products. 

<9 

Problems and topics: 

1. The importance of feeding the tops and the pulp on the farm. 

2. The value of the tops for pasture, ensilage or feed. 

3. The value of the pulp as feed. 

Basic Readings: 

Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture, Pages 236-7. 

Advanced Readings: 

Livingston—Field Crops Production, Chapter XVIII. 

Wilson and Warburton—Field Crops, Chapter XXIII. 

Montgomery—Productive Farm Crops, XLIV. 

PROJECT OF GROWING TIMOTHY AND OTHER TAME GRASSES 

FOR HAY OR PASTURE 

Note—Since this is a minor enterprise in most parts of Nebraska, 
no attempt has been made to analyze the project into sub-projects. Only 
a few problems and some laboratory projects are suggested. 


AGRICULTURE 


(24) 377 


Problems and topics: 

1. Adaptation to soil and climate. (Especially timothy, blue grass, 

red top and Bermuda.) 

2. Importance of the grasses for hay crops. 

3. Why grasses are especially adapted to pasturing. 

4. Why blue grass is especially adapted to lawns. 

5. When and how grasses should be harvested for hay. 

6. Relative values of different grasses for hay, for pasture. 

Laboratory: 

1. Identification of different kinds of grass seeds and their com¬ 

mon adulterants. 

2. Examine plants of different kinds of grasses, and by drawing 

illustrate their habits of growth. 

Basic Readings: 

Gehrs—'Productive Agriculture, Chapter VIII. 

Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture, Chapter XVI. 

Moore and Halligan—Plant Production, pages 161-166. 

Advanced Readings: 

Gehrs—Principles of Agriculture, Chapter X. 

Livingston—Field Crops Production, Chapter X, XI. 

Wilson and Warburton—Field Crops, Chapter XV. 

Montgomery—Productive Farm Crops, Chapter XXXVII. 


PROJECT OF GROWING WILD GRASSES FOR PASTURE OR HAY 

Note—The amount of space given to this project is not indicative of 
its importance as an enterprise in Nebraska. In the western part of the 
state the maintenance of adequate range and hay land is a major 

problem. In communities in which this is true the amount of time de¬ 
voted to the project should be longer than the extent of this outline may 
apparently indicate. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Advisability of maintaining a native pasture. 

2. Caring for the native range. 

3. Time and method of harvesting the hay crop. 

4. Comparative value of wild and tame hay. 


378 (25) 


AGRICULTURE 


5. Plant characteristics of some of the most important native 

grasses of Nebraska, and their adaptations to soil and climate. 

6. Marketing the crop. 

Laboratory: 

Identification of the most important native grasses. Illustrate by 
drawings their habits of growth. 

Basic Readings: 

Gehrs—Productive Agriculture, Chapter VIII. 

Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture, Pages 192-4. 

Moore and Halligan—Plant Production, pages 166-173. 

Advanced Readings: 

Gehrs—Principles of Agriculture, Chapter XI. 

Livingston—Field Crops Production, Chapter XXL 
Wilson and Warburton—Field Crops, Chapter XIII. 


PROJECT OF GROWING ANNUAL FORAGE CROPS 

Note—The importance of this enterprise in certain parts of the 
state will require that longer time be given the project than the extent 
of this outline may apparently indicate. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Adaptations to soil and climate. 

2. Plant characteristics of the most common ones as sorghums, 

millet and rape. 

3. Their importance and value as forage in Nebraska. 

4. Kinds and varieties best adapted to local community. 

5. The production of the crop. 

6. The harvesting of the crop. 

Laboratory: 

Identification of the plants and seeds of the most common varieties. 
Basic Readings: 

Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture, Chapter XVIII. 

Advanced Readings: 

Livingston—Field Crops Production, Chapter XII. 

Wilson and Warburton—Field Crops, Chapter XVI. 

Montgomery—Productive Farm Crops, Chapters XXXVIII, XXXIX. 


AGRICULTURE 


(26) 379 


PROJECT OF RAISING HOGS 

Introductory. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Importance of hog raising as a farm enterprise. 

2. Factors favorable or unfavorable to hog raising as a farm enter¬ 

prise. 

3. Names and locations of different parts of the hog. 

4. Kinds of hog feeds: characteristics and value of each. 

5. How to balance a feed ration and the comparative value of 

different rations. 

Laboratory : 

1. Draw maps to show the distribution of the swine industry in 

Nebraska and the United States. 

2. Draw diagram of the hog naming the different parts of the body. 

3. Collect samples of feeds. 

Sub-project I. Selecting the breed to raise. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The common types of hogs: the characteristics and advantages 

and disadvantages of each. 

2. Why raise purebreds? How improve the herd? 

3. The common breeds of hogs: development, characteristics, strong 

and weak points of each, adaptability. 

Laboratory : 

1. Study type and breed characteristics from pictures of “prize 

winning” individuals. 

2. Score card and comparative judging of available breeds. 

Sub-project II. Caring for the sow and litter. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The importance of sanitation, sunshine, exercise, shelter, dry 

lots, etc. 

2. Proper housing for the sow and litter. 

3. Proper feeding practices for the sow. 

4. Proper feeding practices for the growing pigs. 

Laboratory: 

Computing rations. 


380 (27) 


AGRICULTURE 


Sub-project III. Growing out and fattening the shoats. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Relative merits of lot feeding, feeding with pasture, and follow¬ 

ing cattle. 

2. Proper feeding for the growing shoat and how the ration changes 

as the “finishing” stage is reached. 

3. Relative merits of feeding by hand or with self-feeder. 

4. How and why keep hog lots sanitary? 

Laboratory: 

1. Computing rations. 

2. Visit local feeders to observe their methods. 

Sub-project IV. Controlling diseases and pests. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Preventative measures. 

2. The control of lice, mange, cholera. 

Sub-project V. Preparing the meat supply on the farm. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The advisability of butchering hogs for home consumption. 

2. Butchering the hog. 

3. Cutting up the carcass. 

* 

4. Rendering and storing lard. 

5. Curing and storing the meat. 

Laboratory: 

1. Demonstrate desirable butchering practices. 

2. Draw diagrams of hog carcass locating different cuts of meat. 

3. Demonstrate the proper method of cutting up the carcass. 

Sub-project VI. Marketing fat hogs. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Market types and classes. 

2. Price fluctuations. 

3. When and how best to market hogs. 

4. The purebred sale. 

Laboratory: 

1. Graph the daily price fluctuations on the Omaha market. 

2. Graph the monthly price fluctuations on the Omaha market. 


AGRICULTURE 


(28) 381 


Basic Readings: 

Gehrs—Productive Agriculture, Chapter XIII. 

Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture, Chapter II; XXVIII; XXXIII. 
Tormey and La wry—Animal Husbandry, Chapters I; IX; XI; XVII. 

Advanced Readings: 

Gehrs—Principles of Agriculture, Chapter XIX; Appropriate topics 
in Chapters XIII-XV. 

Harper—Animal Husbandry for Schools, Chapters XVI to XIX. 
Plumb—Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Chapter LXV to 
LXXVIII. 

Plumb—Judging Farm Animals, Chapters XLV to LIII. 

Smith—Profitable Stock Feeding, Chapters XXIV to XXIX. 


PROJECT OF RAISING CATTLE AND PRODUCING DAIRY 

PRODUCTS 

Introductory. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The importance of beef production as a farm enterprise. 

2. The importance of dairy production as a farm enterprise. 

3. The advisability of raising beef, dairy, or “dual purpose” cattle. 

4. Names and locations of the different parts of the beef animal. 

5. Names and locations of the different parts of the dairy animal. 

6. Characteristics of the beef type. 

7. Characteristics of the dairy type. 

8. Form and texture of the udder. 

9. Names, location and value of the different cuts of the beef car¬ 

cass. 

10. Kinds of feed for cattle; characteristics and value of each. 
Laboratory: 

1. Charts and maps showing the distribution of the beef and dairy 

industries in Nebraska and in the United States. 

2. Diagram showing parts of beef animal; of dairy animal. 

3. Diagram showing beef type; dairy type. 

4. Diagram of beef carcass showing different cuts. 

5. Collect samples of feeds. 


382 (29) 


AGRICULTURE 


Sub-project I. Selecting the breed to raise. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The common beef breeds: development, characteristics, strong 

and weak points, adaptability. 

2. The common dairy breeds; sub-topics same as for beef breeds. 

3. Why raise purebreds? How improve the herd? 

Laboratory: 

1. Type and breed characteristics as indicated by pieture* #f 

“prize winning” individuals. 

2. Score card and comparative judging of available breeds. 

Sub-project II. Caring for the herd. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Providing proper shelter and sanitation for fattening cattle. 

2. Proper housing and sanitation for the dairy cow. 

3. Growing out the calf. 

4. Proper feeding for the fattening steer. 

5. Proper feeding for the dairy cow. 

6. Eliminating “boarders” from the dairy herd. 

7. Handling of the dairy herd. 

I laboratory: 

Computing rations. 


Sub-project III. Caring for the dairy products. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The physical and chemical properties of milk. 

2. Keeping th§ milking stall sanitary. 

3. The milk pail: type, sanitation. 

4. Separating the milk: operation of separator, sanitation. 

5. Storing the milk and cream: temperature, sanitation. 

6. Home made butter: condition of cream, sanitation, storage. 

Laboratory: 

1. Testing milk with the Babcock tester. 

2. Weekly tests of different cows. 

3. Operation of separator. Vary adjustment and test “separated 

milk” for butter fat. 


AGRICULTURE 


(30) 383 


Sub-project IV. The prevention and cure of disease. 

i 

Problems and topics: 

Tuberculosis, milk fever, blackleg, foot and mouth disease. 

Sub-project V. Marketing the products. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Price fluctuations for cattle and dairy products. 

2. How best dispose of surplus dairy products. 

3. When and how best to dispose of fat cattle? 

4. Market classes of beef cattle. 

5. The purebred sale. 

Laboratory: 

1. Graph daily price fluctuations for butter fat on local market. 

2. Graph daily and monthly price fluctuations for fat cattle on 

Omaha market. 

Basic Readings: 

Gehrs—Productive Agriculture, Chapters XI and XII. 

Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture, Chapters XXVIII; XXX- 
XXXII. 

Tormey and Lawry—Animal Husbandry, Chapters V; VII; X; XIV 
XV. 

Advanced Readings: 

Gehrs—Principles of Agriculture, Chapters XVII and XVIII; Appro¬ 
priate topics in Chapters XIII-XV. 

Harper—Animal Husbandry for Schools, Chapters VI to IX. 

Plumb—Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Chapters XXV to XLIV. 
Plumb—'Judging Farm Animals, Chapters XVII to XXX. 

Smith—Profitable Stock Feeding, Chapters V to XVII. 

PROJECT OF RAISING POULTRY AND PRODUCING POULTRY 

, PRODUCTS 

Introductory. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Importance of poultry production as a farm enterprise. 

2. Advantages and disadvantages of poultry production as a farm 

enterprise. 


384 (31) 


AGRICULTURE 


3. Poultry feeds—characteristics and value of each. 

4. Names and locations of the different parts of the fowl. 

Laboratory: 

1. Maps to show distribution of poultry industry in Nebraska and 

in the United States. 

2. Collect samples of poultry feeds. 

3. Diagram of fowl to show parts of body. 

Sub-project I. Selecting the breed and variety to raise. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Poultry classes, breeds and varieties—utility, “standard”. 

2. The breeds and varieties best suited to Nebraska: character¬ 

istics, strong and weak points, local adaptation. 

3. Advantages of purebreds. 

Laboratory: 

1. Study of standard characteristics from pictures of record birds. 

2. Judging individual birds from the point of view of standard 

breed characteristics, of utility value. 

3. Diagram showing types of utility classes. 

Sub-project II. Caring for the breeding flock. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Desirable characteristics of the male bird. 

2. Desirable characteristics of the female bird. 

3. Managing the flock—assuring fertility, proper feeding, proper 

quarters. 

4. Trap-nesting. 

Sub-project III. Incubation. 

Problems and topics: 

1. When best to incubate. 

2. Selecting the eggs. 

3. Natural or artificial incubation—which? 

4. How to operate the incubator. 

5. Caring for the setting hen. 

Laboratory: 

Incubate by the artificial method; by the natural method. 


AGRICULTURE 


(32) 385 


Sub-project IV. Growing out the young birds. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Caring for the baby chicks—natural and artificial brooding. 

2. Proper housing arrangements, runs, sanitation, disease control, 

etc. 

3. Proper feeding. 

Laboratory: 

Grow out the chicks incubated. 

Sub-project V. Culling the flock. 

Problems and topics: 

Form and other characteristics indicative of egg-laying qualities. 
Laboratory: 

1. Examine various birds for egg-laying qualities. 

2. Cull one or more flocks. 

Sub-project VI. Fattening poultry for the market. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Advantages over the usual method of selling from the flock. 

2. How to fatten for the market. 

Laboratory: 

Fatten a small pen for the market keeping cost accounting records. 

Sub-project VII. Caring for the laying flock. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Proper feeding for egg production. 

2. Proper housing arrangement, equipment, runs, sanitation, etc. 

3. Production of infertile eggs. 

Sub-project VIII. Caring for the eggs. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The physical, biological and chemical characteristics of the egg. 

2. Time and regularity of gathering. 

3. Temporary storage of eggs. 

4. Preserving eggs for longer periods. 

Laboratory: 

1. Diagram to show structure of egg. 

2. Preserve some eggs, and examine at stated intervals to note 

effect of storage. 


386 (33) 


AGRICULTURE 


Sub-project IX. Combating the enemies of poultry. 

Problems and topics: 

1. How to protect from rodents, etc. 

2. How to prevent and treat such diseases as roup, white diarrhea, 

etc. 

3. How to control such insects as lice, body mites, scale mites, 

worms causing gapes, etc. 

Sub-project X. Marketing poultry products. 

Problems and topics: 

♦ 

1. Candling eggs. 

2. Market grades of eggs. 

3. When and how to market eggs to best advantage. 

4. When and how to market surplus cockerels and undesirable 

pullets to best advantage. 

5. When and how best to market hens. 

6. Price fluctuation for poultry products. 

Laboratory: 

1. Candle and grade eggs. 

2. Graph price fluctuations for some central market. 

Basic Readings: 

Gehrs—Productive Agriculture, Chapter XV. 

Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture, Chapter XXXIII. 

Tormey and Lawry—Animal Husbandry, Chapters XIX-XXIII. 

Advanced Readings: 

Gehrs—Principles of Agriculture, Chapter XXI. 

Harper—Animal Husbandry for Schools, Chapters XX to XXIII. 
Smith—Profitable Stock Feeding, Chapters XXX to XXXIV. 

PROJECT OF RAISING HORSES AND MULES AND CARING FOR 

THE FARM WORK ANIMALS 

Introductory. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Importance of the horse and mule industry. 

2. Advisability of farmer raising own work horses and mules. 


AGRICULTURE 


(34) 387 


3. The horse versus the tractor as a source of farm power. 

4. The conformation of the horse. 

5. How to tell the age of a horse. 

Laboratory: 

1. Maps to show distribution of horse and mule industry in Ne¬ 

braska and the United States. 

2. Draw a diagram of the horse locating the different parts. 

3. Examine the teeth of several horses to determine age. 

Sub-project I. Selecting the breed. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Characteristics and adaptability of the four types of horses. 

2. Characteristics and adaptibiiity of the common breeds of horses. 

3. Advisability of raising purebreds. 

Laboratory: 

1. Study type and breed characteristics from pictures of “prize 

winning” individuals. 

2. Score card and comparative judging of horses. 

Sub-project II. The control and treatment of unsoundness and diseases. 

Problems and topics: 

The common blemishes, unsoundness and disease should be studied. 
For complete list, see any good text. 

Laboratory: 

Observe as many blemishes, unsoundness and diseases as possible. 

Sub-project III, Caring for the work animal. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Proper feeding practices. 

2. Proper housing facilities. 

3. Proper fit of harness. 

4. Proper rate of movement. 

5. The necessity for humane treatment—kindness grooming, blan¬ 

keting, shoeing, care of teeth, etc. 

6. Exercise and over-work. 

Laboratory: 

1. Computing rations. 

2. Visit local horsemen to observe their method^ of care an<h man¬ 

agement. 


388 (35) 


AGRICULTURE 


Sub-project IV. Caring for the young animal. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Proper feeding, housing and management practices for the coit. 

2. “Breaking” the young animal to work. 

Sub-project V. Marketing the surplus. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The market classes of mules. 

2. The market classes of horses. 

3. Price fluctuations for horses nnd mules. 

Laboratory: 

1. Graph price fluctuations for mules. 

2. Graph price fluctuations for horses. 

Basic Readings: 

Gehrs—Productive Agriculture, Chapters X and IX. 

Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture, Chapter XXIX. 

Tormey and Lawry—Animal Husbandry, Chapters VI; XII-XIII. 

Advanced Readings: 

^ i 

Gehrs—Principles of Agriculture, Chapter XVI. 

Harper—Animal Husbandry for Schools, Chapters I, II, and IV. 
Plumb—Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Chapters I to XXIV. 
Plumb—Judging Farm Animals, Chapters III to XIV. 

Smith—Profitable Stock Feeding, Chapters XXXV and XXXVI. 

PROJECT OF RAISING SHEEP 

Introductory: 

Problems and topics: 

1. The importance of sheep raising as a farm enterprise. 

2. Factors favorable and unfavorable to sheep raising. 

Laboratory: 

Maps to show distribution of sheep industry. 

Sub-project I. Selecting the breed to raise. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The classes of sheep and the common breeds of each class: de¬ 
velopment, characteristics, adaptability. 


AGRICULTURE 


(36) 389 


2. Importance of purebreds. 

Laboratory: 

1. Study type and breed characteristics from pictures of “prize 

winning” individuals. 

2. Score card and comparative judging of available breeds. 

Sub-project II. Caring for sheep during the lambing season. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Caring for the lambs at “harvest time”. 

2. How and why dock lambs? 

Sub-project III. Housing sheep. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Why housing is important. 

2. Housing facilities desirable. 

Laboratory: 

Visit local breeders or feeders to inspect housing facilities. 

Sub-project IV. Fattening sheep or lambs. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Advisability of producing lambs for mutton. 

2. Proper feeding practices. 

Sub-project V. Shearing the flock and handling the wool. 

Problems and topics: 

1. When and how to shear sheep. 

2. How to care for the wool after shearing. 

3. How to care for the flock after shearing. 

• 

Sub-project VI. Controlling diseases and pests. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The dog menace and its control. 

2. Controlling scab and lice. 

Sub-project VII. Marketing sheep and wool. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Relative advantages of selling wool locally, shipping to dealer, 
or pooling with other farmers. 


390 (37) 


AGRICULTURE 


2. When and how to market fat sheep and lambs. 

3. Price fluctuations for sheep and wool. 

Laboratory: 

1. Graph market fluctuations for sheep. 

2. Graph market fluctuations for wool. 

Basic Readings: 

Gehrs—Productive Agriculture, Chapter XIV. 

Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture, Chapter XXXIV. 

Tormey and Lawry—Animal Husbandry, Chapters VIII; XI; XVI. 

Advanced Readings: 

Gehrs—Principles of Agriculture, Chapter XX. 

Harper—Animal Husbandry for Schools, Chapters XII to XV. 
Plumb—Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Chapters XLV to XLII. 
Plumb—Judging Farm Animals, Chapters XXXI to XLII. 

Smith—Profitable Stock Feeding, Chapters XVIII to XXIII. 


AGRICULTURE 


(38) 391 


REFERENCE LIST 
Suggested Texts 

1. Gehrs—Productive Agriculture .(Macmillan) 

2. Waters—The Essentials of Agriculture ......(Ginn) 

3. Moore and Halligan—Plant Production.(A. B. C.) 

4. Tormey and Lawry—Animal Husbandry .(A. B. C.) 

Suggested Laboratory Manuals 

1. Gehrs & James—One Hundred Exercises in Agriculture (Macmillan) 

2. Waters & Elliff—Agricultural Laboratory Exercises and 

Projects ..(Ginn) 

Additional Reference Books 

1. Livingston—Field Crops Production .(Macmillan) 

2. Montgomery—Productive Farm Crops .(Lippincott) 

3. Wilson & Warburton—Field Crops ...(Webb) 

4. Whitson & Walster—Soil and Soil Fertility .(Webb) 

5. Georgia—Manual of Weeds .„.(Macmillan) 

6. Slingerland & Crosby—Manual of Insects .(Macmillan) 

7. Plumb—Types and Breeds (N'ew) . (Ginn) 

8. Harper—Animal Husbandry for Schools . (Webb) 

9. Plumb—Judging Farm Animals .(Orange Judd) 

10. Craig—Judging Livestock .(Webb) 

11. Smith—Profitable Stock Feeding .(Webb) 

12. Mayor—Diseases of Farm Animals ..(Macmillan) 

13. Gehrs—Principles of Agriculture .(Macmillan) 

14. The “Productive” series of agricultural texts published by J. B. 

Lippincott & Co. 

15. Spillman—Farm Science .World Book Co., Chicago. 

Farm Papers and. Magazines 

1. The Nebraska Farmer ....Lincoln, Nebraska 

2. The Nebraska Farm Journal .•.Omaha, Nebraska 

3. Wallace’s Farmer .Des Moines, Iowa 

4. Successful Farming .Des Moines, Iowa 

5. Country Gentleman, Curtis Publishing Co.Springfield, Ohio 

Federal and State Bulletins 

Both the College of Agriculture, University of Nebraska, and the 
United States Department of Agriculture issue numerous bulletins and 
pamphlets invaluable to the student of agriculture. Since these publi¬ 
cations are changing frequently to keep up-to-date, no attempt has been 


























392 (39) 


AGRICULTURE 


made to list specific bulletins here. Each teacher should secure lists of 
these publications and order supplies needed early, preferably before the 
opening of school in the fall. 

For State bulletins write the College of Agriculture, University of 
Nebraska, Lincoln, for list of available bulletins from which to make 
order. Also ask the Extension Service, College of Agriculture, Lincoln, 
to put your department on its mailing list. 

For federal bulletins write the Division of Publication, U. S. De¬ 
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., for a list of available bul¬ 
letins from which to order. Many federal bulletins are free; others may 
be secured through your Congressman and U. S. Senator; and still 
others may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Gov¬ 
ernment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 


AMERICAN HISTORY 



- 

. 

. 

' 
















* 

































































































' 

■ , - 


' 
















■ 
















American History 

GENERAL INFORMATION 


Aims and Purposes 

“The story of history is ever growing; the stream of history is ever 
widening; the life of which it tells is ever becoming fuller and richer. 
History, to be complete, must portray and interpret this life in its mani¬ 
fold phases; it must not neglect one phase, nor emphasize another phase 
unduly. In the writing of history and in the teaching of history we are 
now coming to see that it has an intellectual phase, a moral phase, a 
religious phase, an economic phase, an industrial phase—many social 
phases—as well as a military phase and a political phase. 

“We spend so much time and energy on the ‘What’ and the ‘Where’ 
and the ‘When’ of history, as well as of other things, that we often forget 
or neglect the ‘How’ and the ‘Why’.”* 

“One of the most common errors about the nature of history is to 
regard it as a ‘record’. It is not a record, at least not more so than is 
any other subject, for it does not deal with the record as such. History 
is hardly the thing recorded, for it does not deal with events for their 
own sake, but only so far as they reveal the life of which they are the 
result. 

. . . . From this, the following inferences and implications may 

be made: 

1. That two sets of facts—one physical and picturable and the 
other mental—run parallel through history. The first set consists of a 
people’s acts and the second of its thoughts, feelings, and motives. 

2. The acts or events are the signs or expressions of a people’s 

thoughts and feelings. Man thinks and feels and then acts. He acts in 
a given way because he feels in a given way. . . . The act varies as 

thoughts and emotions vary, and is therefore adapted to give expression 
to the; state of mind of the actors. 

3. It may be said that action constitutes the outer form of history, 
and thoughts and emotions make up its inner essence. It follows, then, 
that the real problem of history lies in this content. Actions or events 
are means to the solution of this problem. 

4. Actions occur but ideas continue. Events are transient while 
ideas are enduring. Only ideas recur. The same idea, purpose, or 


* Wayland—How to Teach American History, pages 1 and 13. 





3(96 (6) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


sentiment may express itself in various actions of very different char¬ 
acteristics. The event, therefore, is particular while the content is gen¬ 
eral. Connections or relations in history are to be found in content 
rather than in form. 

5. Primarily, acts are effects, while thoughts and feelings are 
causes. But a people acting under the impulse of an idea may modify it 
greatly. In a secondary sense, then, events are causes and ideas are 
effects. The suggestion is that the teacher must see that the student 
catch the change in public sentiment that comes through action, as well 
as search for the true cause of events in a preceding state of public 
sentiment. 

It must be apparent, from the conclusions reached, that the problem 
of how to study and teach history can be illuminated by a closer study 
of thought and sentiment—the life of a people. This life moves forward 
by virtue of the forces within. These forces are differences which arise 
in the content of history and which tend to, express themselves in events. 
The differences may attract no attention at first, may be unconscious. 
They may also be strong enough that men begin to take sides. Parties 
may be formed to bring to pass ideas and interests in direct conflict. 
Differences may lead to collisions powerful enough to sweep nations into 
war. 

The student of history must watch for the rise of differences in ideas 
and for the gathering of men into parties .... ; in some cases 

differences lead to disputes, conflicts of opinion, and even war. 

Conflicts do not occur over political events 'alone, but over religious, 

educational, industrial, and social differences.Herein lies a 

large part of the ethical value of history to the student.”* .... 

. . . . “Not only do movements of thought and feeling in the life 

of the people develop under the laws of continuity and differentiation, 
but the life of the race, as a whole, grows in the same way. An examina¬ 
tion of the life of any people will reveal certain permanent features 
common to the history of all civilized nations. There will be found five 
well-marked phases—a political, an industrial, a religious, an educa¬ 
tional, and a social phase.”* 

To this should be added a geographic phase. “Historical facts are 
. . . . localized facts. They belong to particular times and particular 

places. If these relations are suppressed, the facts simply cease to be 
historical. The primary purpose of maps is to assist the pupil in grasp¬ 
ing the place relation, or, to put the matter more generally, to assist the 
pupil in keeping history on the earth. 

The physical features help to explain specific conditions and events. 
They should be woven into the body of the narrative wherever they are 


* Mace—Method in History, pages 16 and 17. 




AMERICAN HISTORY 


(7) 397 


needed, and not relegated to a bare introduction. There should be, not 
merely one general physical map, but special detailed physical maps 
setting forth the special features to be realized in dealing with particular 
situations as they arise in the course of the narrative.”* 

The main problems of a course in history may be stated as follows: 

1. To show “that the life of a people is an organic whole; that this 

life is one mighty stream of five currents moving on toward one goal; 
that there is not one destiny for government, another for the church, 
another still for the school, and a different one for industrial and social 
interests, but that all these constitute one life with one destiny. . . . 

2. To trace transverse and intricate, as well as parallel, lines of 
growth in the subject of history”; to take each great event and each 
great series of events, and discover the extent to which many or all of 
the institutions are affected. 

3. To teach “in a general way, how an idea or an institution is to 
be traced from its beginnings till it reaches and influences the present; 
that” he “may discover how the idea, with all its accumulations of a 
great past, may touch the present at so many points.”f 

4. To show that the whole process of history is bent by “geographic 
influences”. 

5. And, lastly, to show that the final determining factor in history 
is the temper of the people. “When, in the year 1890, within our own 
memories, the frontier in the United States officially ceased to exist, the 
great westward march of the Aryan race, begun thousands of years ago, 
came to an end and definitely closed the only period of the world’s history 
which man himself has recorded. The tide of westward movement, which 
had streamed out of the East into the West for so many centuries, 
breasted the peaks of that lofty mountain-range which Benton used to 
call the ‘shining mountains’, and West met East. The history of the 
United States is the story of the last and geographically longest stage 
in this westward progress of the Aryan race. Considering the vastness 
of the area reclaimed from the wilderness and the development there of 
an advanced civilization within the brief space of three centuries, the 
achievement is without parallel in the records of the race.”:j: 

This course is an attempt to achieve the aims and purposes stated 
above. 


Readings 

No attempt has been made at an exhaustive list of readings. Enough 
have been indicated to give a full-rounded discussion of the problem to 
be solved. It is not required that teachers adhere strictly to the books 
cited, but that other good texts and references of the same quality and 


♦Johnson—Teaching of History, pages 241, 253, 254. 
iMace—Method in History, pages 23 and 24. 
tUsher—The Rise of the American People, page 3. 



398 (8) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


standard be freely substituted for those here given. A smaller list or 
one of less quality cannot furnish an adequate basis for this course. No 
attempt has been made to cite source material. This is a matter on 
which there are such wide differences of opinion that it is left to the 
individual teacher to conduct this phase of her work as she sees fit. 

To teachers who desire a more exhaustive outline from a different 
point of view, we suggest Persinger’s “Student Outline of American 
History”, published by the University Publishing Company, Lincoln, from 
which those sections of this course in “General Reviews” have been taken, 
and here printed with permission of the publishers. 

Dates in History 

“Dates in history are like the stars in the heavens. They shine out 
of the darkness, showing place, relation, and interrelation. A few are of 
the first magnitude; the others are less in rank by reason of smaller 
circumstances, or less in brilliancy by reason of greater distances. We 
do not attempt to learn all the stars by name—the great majority, per¬ 
haps, are nameless; but we do name a few of the chief ones, and learn 
to know them. In the world of time, as in the world of space, we need to 
name and know only the great fixed stars—there are no temporal planets. 
The innumerable lesser dots upon the expanse of the ages may be allowed 
to fade gradually out of our consciousness, save here and there a path of 
light—a Clio’s milky way.”* 

Yet “Dates seem to be the disturbing factor in history study; yet 
if dates were left out of history, everything would be disturbed and in 
hopeless confusion”. 

“Time and place relations of events must be learned in history by 
students, but too much drill on isolated time relations kills the spirit of 
history classes; but history without time relations is blind”. There are 
several methods of teaching time relations. The nature of the event 
determines which one, or more than one, of the following methods should 
be used: 

1. “The method of giving exact dates. 

2. Grouping events about important dates”, using important dates 
chosen under (1) as “focal dates about which to group events 
that happened within the same decade. As an illustration, group 
all the events of importance that happened between 1613 and 1625 
about ‘1619’. 

3. Placing an event where it belongs in a series of cause and effect 
(or putting it where it belongs in a story).—As an illustration, 
place the following events in the order of cause and effect: The 
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions; Our War with France in 
1800; The Alien and Sedition Laws. 


* Wayland—How to Teach America*. History, pages 236 and 237. 




AMERICAN HISTORY 


(9) 399 


4. The method of associating events with men who had most to do 
with them.—As an illustration, associate the purchase of Louisi¬ 
ana Territory with Jefferson, the Compromise of 1850 with Clay, 
the building of the Panama Canal with Roosevelt, etc. 

5. The method of locating events in centuries.—As an illustration, 
the events that have to do with the exploration and discovery of 
America took place mostly in the 16th century, most of the 
colonial settlements were made in the 17th century, etc. 

6. The method of naming the period or epoch in which the event 
falls.—As an illustration, name events and have the class name 
the periods of American history to which they belong.”f 

The following list of dates together with events should be memor¬ 
ized as focal dates. Remember “too much drill on isolated time relations 
kills the spirit of the history class”. These dates should be emphasized 
at the time of the original teaching and reviewed in various relations: 
1000; 1453; 1492; 1497; 1521; 1565; 1588 (Defeat of Spanish Armada); 
1607; 1619; 1620; 1643 (New England Confederation); 1654; 1688 (Glori¬ 
ous Revolution, England); 1754 (Albany Congress); 1763; 1765; 1775; 
July 4, 1776; 1781; 1783; 1787; 1789; 1793 (Invention of the Cotton Gin); 
1800-40 (Industrial Revolution); 1803; 1807; 1812; 1819; 1820; 1823; 1830 
(The Beginning of the Era of Railroad Building in the United States); 
1831 (Cyrus McCormick’s Reaper); 1844; 1845; 1846 (Howe’s Sewing Ma¬ 
chine); 1846-48; 1850; 1854; April 4, 1861; Jan. 1, 1863; April 9, 1865; 
1867; 1876 (Invention of Telephone); 1894 (Advent of Automobile); 1898; 
1903 (Airplane); August, 1914; 1915; April 6, 1917; Nov. 11, 1918; 1921 
(Resolution Declaring Peace). 


Map Work 

No course in history can be adequate without a set of good modern 
maps, and careful work on mapping events of historical significance. 
The map is to history what the diagram is to the sciences and the graph 
to mathematics. 


Acknowledgments 

For the content of this course, its division into chapters, the state¬ 
ment of the main themes and purposes, the selection of materials, and 
the page citations, the department is indebted to E. P. Wilson, Professor 
of History and Civics, Chadron State Teachers College, and expresses its 
appreciation to him. 

Acknowledgment is due J. A. Christenson, Principal Superior High 
School, for aid in recasting two problems in this revision, viz., The Rise 
of a People (Before the Civil War) and Economic Factors in Our History 
(Since the Civil War). 


t Hahn—Projects in Observation and Practice Teaching:, page 139. 



400 (10) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


For the form of the course, its organization as a series of problems, 
outlines and suggested related problems and for any and all distortions 
occasioned by editing and adapting it to the problem method, the under¬ 
signed assumes responsibility. For an elaboration of the point of view 
from which this course was edited the teacher is referred to Mace, 
“Method in History”, with which every teacher of United States history 
should be familiar. 

State Examinations 

The examination questions in United States history required by law 
for a second grade county certificate will be based on this course of study. 

A. L. B. 


American History 


INTRODUCTORY 

References in the following- course are to the books listed below: 


Text 

History of the United States 
Advanced American History 
New American History 
American History 
History of the American People 
An American History 
History of the American People 
History of the United States 

Larger Short Histories 
A Short History of the United States 
History of the United States 
American Democracy 
Our Republic 


Author 

Publisher 

Beard 

Macmillan 

Forman 

Century 

Hart 

A. B. C. 

James and Sanford 

Scribners 

McLaughlin 

Appleton 

Muzzey 

Ginn 

West 

Allyn & Bacon 

Thompson 

Sanborn 

Bassett 

Macmillan 

Elson 

Macmillan 

West 

Allyn & Bacon 

Forman 

Century 


The class should be supplied with a sufficient number of these books, 
or with an equal number of like quality, for the work to be done without 
inconvenience. (A thoro acquaintance with these texts is in itself of 
great value to the prospective teacher.) In a number of instances ques¬ 
tions that require a considerable amount of research should be assigned 
to individual pupils or to small groups. The reports brot to the class 
should be well prepared and well presented. Much emphasis should be 
given to class discussion. “Thot questions'’ should form the basis of 
most of the class work. 

The history of the American nation has been to a great extent the 
unfolding of the principles of democracy. In this undertaking we have 
achieved great success in the political field. Now we must bend our 
energies to a realization of these ideals in the fields of economic and 
social action. 

Teachers and students alike should realize that democracy is the 
fundamental thing in American history. Our great national questions 
are solved by the application of democratic principles. If this is kept 
steadily in mind those, who in the high school are privileged to study 
again the wonderful history of our country, will receive additional train¬ 
ing of a high order for the responsibilities of American citizenship. 



/ 


/ 

402 (12) AMERICAN HISTORY 

THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 

Problem: 

The Oriental trade routes over which Europe carried on a consider¬ 
able amount of her commerce with the East were closed by the fall 
of Constantinople. What attempts will now be made by Europe to 
• continue this trade ? What will result from these attempts ? 

Outline of Problem: 

Geographical Knowledge of the Ancients—Effect of the Crusades on 
Period — Ancient Trade Routes — Geographical Factors Affecting 
Trade—The Renaissance—Capture of Constantinople—The Floren¬ 
tine Navigators—Voyages Around Africa—Columbus and the Dis¬ 
covery of America. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Trace on the map the ancient trade routes. 

2. What were the sources of geographical knowledge at that time? 

3. Why did Europeans wish to trade with India ? 

4. List and describe the early improvements in navigation and com¬ 
pare with today. 

5. How is commerce a civilizing agency? 

6. Account for the Renaissance. 

7. Why is 1453 so important a date? 

8. Is it probable that America would have been discovered without 
the fall of Constantinople and the closing of the trade routes ? 

9. Account for the decline of Italy and the rise of Spain and Por¬ 
tugal as maritime powers. 

10. What advantages of location had Spain and Portugal? 

11. Name and locate the great commercial nations of today. 

12. What was Prince Henry’s influence upon navigation? 

13. Do you think that the discovery of America was an accident? 

14. Compare the value of the Norse discoveries with those of Colum¬ 
bus. 

15. What geographic factors served to condition the direction of 
Columbus’ voyages? 

16. Briefly summarize the historical background of this period. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 


(13) 403 


References: 

Hart, 1-4, 18-23; McLaughlin, 1-12; Muzzey, 3-10; Forman, 1-15; 
James and Sanford, 4-14; Elson, 1-27; Thompson, 1-14. 


RESOURCES AND INHABITANTS OF THE NEW WORLD 

Problem: 

What sort of land did these fifteenth century explorers find and how 

was it adapted as a new home for the westward expanding Aryan 

race ? 

Outline of Problem: 

Topography of the Atlantic Slope—The Hinterland—Soil—Climate— 

Natural Resources—Native Peoples. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. What is the character of the Atlantic coast? How may coast 
lines affect history? 

2. How does the American coast differ from the European coast? 

3. What difference do you notice between the northern and southern 
parts of the Atlantic coast? Which was the more inviting? 
Why? 

4. How do soil and products vary from north to south along the 
Atlantic coast? How will this probably influence the history? 

5. In what way was the interior accessible? How will this prob¬ 
ably affect migration? 

6. Describe the American Indian as to his appearance, life and 
character. Account for his origin. In what ways did the Indian 
aid the colonists? 

7. Note rivers and river valleys with reference to their probable 
effect on exploration and colonization. 

8. In what way did the distribution of the natives affect the success 
of exploration and settlement? 

9. Do you anticipate any effect the Appalachian mountains may 
have on colonization? 

10. What food and shelter resources are afforded by America? 

11. How do the natural resources portend industrial history? 


404 (14) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


12. In what ways does America excel Europe in natural resources ? 

13. “The most important geographical fact in the past history of 
the United States has been their location on the Atlantic opposite 
Europe.”* How do you account for this ? 

14. “The most important geographical fact in lending a distinctive 
character to their future history will probably be their location 
on the Pacific opposite Asia.”* Do you think so? Why? 

References: 

West, 1-6; Forman, 16-24; Muzzey, 19-24; Hart, 7-16; Bassett, 1-22; 

Elson, 27-39. 


EXPLORATION AND NATIONAL RIVALRY 


Problem: 

“Throughout the first half of the sixteenth century and far into the 
second half Spain was supreme in the New World, both on land and 
on sea, and could prevent any nation from making settlements on 
the American continent. Before the end of the century, England 
had become the mistress of the seas and was free to plant colonies 
in America and elsewhere.” 

With the destruction of the Armada, “the navy of Spain was gone, 
the Atlantic seaboard from the St. Johns river in Florida to the St. 
Lawrence was free to be occupied by any nation that would seize 
upon the land and hold it”. 

“What advantage did the Europeans take of the splendid opportuni¬ 
ties that the New World offered” and what attempts were made “to 
secure a permanent foothold on the American continent” ?f 

Outline of Problem: 

European Background (Forman, 1-7)—Motives Actuating Nations— 
Achievements of Leading Explorers—Advantages and Disadvantages 
of the Nations—Geographical Factors Affecting Discovery and Ex¬ 
ploration. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. How did rivalry between the nations arise? 

2. What nations were first to explore the New World? Why? 
Why -were other nations not exploring the New World? 

3. Which nation had the greatest advantage? Why? 


* Semple—American History and Its Geographic Conditions, 
t See Forman—Advanced American History. 




AMERICAN HISTORY 


(15) 405 


4. Why had Italy no part in the contest? 

5. What influence was exerted by the Pope’s decree concerning the 
“Demarcation Line”? 

6. Trace the routes of travel across the Atlantic. 

7. Why was America so named? What name would you have sug¬ 
gested ? 

8. What had the Reformation to do with national rivalry? 

9. Why was the defeat of the Spanish Armada of such vital conse¬ 
quence? How did it affect Spain, England, America? 

10. Show how religion, trade, adventure and patriotism each had a 
part in revealing the new land. How did each of these forces 
apply to the individual nations, and individual explorers in¬ 
volved ? 

11. Was there any overlapping of discoveries and explorations? If 
so, what problems will probably arise in the future ? 

12. What particular significance attaches to each of the leading ex¬ 
plorers ? 

13. What factors destined the English to be a sea-going people? 

14. Do the explorers give evidence of belonging to a great age ? 

15. Indicate on a map the portions of the New World touched by the 
various explorers. 

References: 

Forman, 25-39; Hart, 23-31; Muzzey, 11-18; James and Sanford, 
17-35; McLaughlin, 12-17; West, 7-13; Bassett, 23-40; Elson, 40-54; 
Thompson, 18-30; West, Am. Dem., 7-13; Forman, Our Rep., 6-10, 
13-22. 

THE COLONIZATION OF THE NEW WORLD 
I. THE BEGINNINGS OF THE COLONIES 
Problem: 

“The tide of migration that set in toward the shores of North 
America during the early years of the seventeenth century was but 
one phase in the restless and eternal movement of mankind upon the 
surface of the earth. 

Of this great sweep of races and empires the settlement of America 
was merely a part. And it was, moreover, only one aspect of the 
expansion which finally carried the peoples, the institutions, and the 
trade of Europe to the very ends of the earth. 


406 


(16) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


In one vital point, it must be noted, American colonization differed 
from that of the ancients. The Greeks usually carried with them 
affection for the government they left behind and sacred fire from 
the altar of the parent city; but thousands of the immigrants who 
came to America disliked the state and disowned the church of the 
mother country. They established compacts of government for 
themselves and set up altars of their own. They sought not only 
new soil to till, but also political and religious liberty for themselves 
and their children. 

It was no light matter for the English to cross three thousand 
miles of water and found homes in the American wilderness at the 
opening of the seventeenth century. Ships, tools, and supplies 
called for huge outlays of money. Stores had to be furnished in 
quantities sufficient to sustain the life of the settlers until they 
could gather harvests of their own. Artisans and laborers of skill 
and industry had to be induced to risk the hazards 'of the New 
World. Soldiers were required for defense and marines for the 
exploration of inland waters. Leaders of good judgment, adept in 
managing men, had to be discovered.”* 

A. Virginia 

West, 15-22; Forman, 42-45; Muzzey, 29-31; Hart, 43-46; McLaughlin, 
19-30; James and Sanford, 37-42; Elson, 55-74; Bassett, 41-50; West, 
Am. Dem., 22-41; Forman, Our Rep., 14-16. 

B. Maryland 

West, 44-45; Forman, 82-86; Muzzey, 45-46; Hart, 49-50; McLaughlin, • 
39-41; James and Sanford, 46-47; Elson, 75-83; Bassett, 52-53; West, 
Am. Dem., 41-46. 

C. New England Colonies (Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, 
New Hampshire) 

West, 50-57, 66-74, 103-109; Forman, 56-72; Hart, 46-48, 50-54; 
Muzzey, 33-35, 48-68; James and Sanford, 50-63; Elson, 98-119; Bas¬ 
sett, 59-70; West, Am. Dem., 62-106. 

D. New York and New Jersey 

West, 135-136; Forman, 53-55; Muzzey, 48-52; McLaughlin, 73-80; 
James and Sanford, 68-74; Elson, 131-149; Bassett, 72-76, 84-85; 
Forman, Our Rep., 16-17. 

E. Pennsylvania and Delaware 

West, 135-140; Forman, 97-101; Muzzey, 53-54; Hart, 65-66; Mc¬ 
Laughlin, 80-86; James and Sanford, 71, 79-83; Elson, 149-159; Bas¬ 
sett, 85-88. 


* Beard—History of the United States, pages 1-2. 




AMERICAN HISTORY 


(17) 407- 


F. Carolinas 

Forman, 86-90; Muzzey, 47-48; McLaughlin, 44-45; Bassett, 81-83; 
James and Sanford, 74-79; Elson, 83-93. 

G. Georgia 

Forman, 121-124; Muzzey, 55-56; McLaughlin, 94-95; James and San¬ 
ford, 139-140; Elson 93-97; Bassett, 109-110. 

H. New France 

West, 9-13; James and Sanford, 104-118; Fbrman 51-52, 125-135; 
Bassett, 111-113; Elson, 160-162; Muzzey, 70-78; McLaughlin, 97-103.. 

Suggestive Related Problems: (English Colonies, Beginnings) 

1. Show on map the conflicting grants of the Charters of 1606 and 
1609. 

2. Which of the colonies were proprietary colonies? Trade col¬ 
onies? Colonies of religious congregations? Distinguish be¬ 
tween these types. 

3. What motives actuated the settlement of each of the colonies? 

4. What difference in means of making a living conditions the eco¬ 
nomic activities of the northern and southern colonies? 

5. What religious conditions in England led to the settlement of 
Plymouth ? 

6. What political condition led to “The Great Migration”? 

7. Compare provisions of the Charters granted several trading com¬ 
panies. 

8. Were the actions of Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson and 
Thomas Hooker justifiable? 

9. What geographic and economic factors favored the splitting off 
of various groups for the founding of new settlements? 

10. What part did the rivers and river valleys play in the coloniza¬ 
tion of America? 

It. Why the term “the Appalachian Barrier”? 

12. Why was the Hudson river so important to the English? 

13. Show how the colonies were made permanent by each of the 
following factors: 

(a) Geographic advantages of the Atlantic coast. 

(b) Absence of powerful Indian tribes. 

(c) Fish, furs, maize, tobacco.* 


*(See Usher—Rise of the American People) 




AMERICAN HISTORY 


408 (18 

14. Do you think the colonists would have come if they had then 
known actual conditions that faced them in the New World? 

15. Why did the Spanish not colonize extensively? 

16. Do you find any conditions that may occasion quarrels among 
the colonies ? 

17. What conditions, if any, point toward a union of any or all of 
the colonies ? 

18. Locate on a map the territory claimed by each of the colonies— 
by the English, French, Spanish. 

Suggestive Related Problems: (New France) 

1. What geographical factors served to condition French explora¬ 
tion and colonization? 

2. What political conditions in France affected French colonization? 

3. Did the Indians aid or hinder the French and how ? 

4. Trace the explorations of the leading French pioneers. Locate 
French colonies. 

5. What predictions can you safely make concerning the relations 
of France and England in the New World? 

6. What European conditions affected the relations of France and 
England in America? 

7. Will Spanish claims cause any trouble? 

II. TYPES OF POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS DEVELOPED 
Problem: 

“Providentially, the English settlers began their new life so far from 
home that active assistance or interference from England in local 
government was out of the question. American democracy orig¬ 
inated in necessity: the settlers did their own work because there 
was no one else who could by any possibility do it. By 1775, they 
had governed themselves so long in every particular and with such 
complete success that the breach with England caused and involved 
. . . . no administrative difficulties or changes.”* 

How did they accomplish this political development? 

A. Specific Examples 
Outline of Problem: 

Virginia — Charter Grants — The Reigns of John Smith, Dale and 
Yeardley—The Representative Assembly—The Hostility of the King 


* Usher—The Rise of the American People, page 46. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 


(19) 409 


—The “New Parliament” in England—Mutiny Against Harvey—The 
Fight for Democracy—Graft in Tax Collections. 

New England Colonies—Mayflower Compact—Communism—Form of 
Government—Democracy at Plymouth—Massachusetts Bay Charter 
—Aristocracy versus Democracy—Fight for the Gorges Charter— 
Effect of Civil War in England—The General Court and the Fight 
Against It—Introduction of Ballots—Adoption of Jury System— 
“Body of Liberties”—Bicameral Legislature—Local Government— 
Relation of Church and State. 

Other Colonies—Aristocracy and Theocracy versus Democracy in 
Other New England Colonies—Growth of Democracy in England— 
Penn and his Democratic Charter—Charters and Government of the 
Carolinas and Georgia—Locke’s “Grand Model”—Connecticut and 
the “Fundamental Orders”. 

References: 

Virginia—West, 24-42, 126-135; McLaughlin, 25-38; Muzzey, 26-33; 
Forman, 79-81; West, Am. Dem., 119-127; Forman, Our Rep., 15-16. 
New England Colonies (Massachusetts, Plymouth, Rhode Island, 
Connecticut)—McLaughlin, 58-62, 64-68; Forman, 65-66, 68-72; Muz¬ 
zey, 38-40; West, 57-58, 62-65, 78-102, 103-109; West, Am. Dem., 
74-90, 112-118; Forman, Our Rep., 19-22. Maryland—West, 44-47; 
Muzzey, 39-44; Forman, 84-86. Pennsylvania—West, 139-140; West, 
Am. Dem., 128-132. 

B. General Political Development 
Outline of Problem: 

Colonial Assemblies and Legislatures—Royal Prerogatives and Royal 
Governors—Right of Suffrage—Freedom of Speech and Press—The 
Problems of Self-government in the Colonies. 

Suggestive Related Problems: (Political Development) 

1. What are the first indications of a development of democratic 
ideas in Virginia ? 

2. What events tended to develop self-government in Virginia? 

3. Why did Virginia become a Royal Colony? 

4. Was Bacon’s Rebellion justifiable ? 

5. What colonial documents show a strong leaning toward democ¬ 
racy? What colonial leaders were opponents of democracy? 

6. What events developed political leadership among the colonials? 


410 (20) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


7. Trace the development of democracy in the New England col¬ 
onies. 

8. Why did Massachusetts tend to develop a theocracy ? 

9. Explain the statement, “The birthplace of American democracy 
in Hartford”. 

10. Why did the first attempts at colonial confederation fail ? 

11. List the democratic organizations formed by the colonials. 

12. Which of the colonies were liberal proprietaries? 

13. “There developed an ‘irrepressible’ conflict between the natural 
and wholesome English demand for imperial unity and the even 
more indispensible American demand for local freedom.” (West, 
140.) Cite instances to prove the truth of this statement. 

References: 

Beard, 48-53; Forman, 111-113; Hart, 84-88; West, 149-154; Mc¬ 
Laughlin, 88-94, 125-131; Bassett, 76-78, 88-108; Elson, 210-219. 

III. COLONIAL INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE 
Problem: 

“In 1665, the whole Atlantic Coast passed finally into English con¬ 
trol; in 1776, the coast colonies declared themselves independent of 
England. The chief task for the historian of colonial history is the 
explanation of this latter fact—the most important single fact in our 
annals—the depicting of the forces which enabled us to deserve and 
to win our independence. The fundamental cause of the Revolution 
lies in the rapid economic growth of the colonies which made them 
in 1775 strong enough and wealthy enough to stand alone. Indepen¬ 
dence was necessarily an accomplished fact which no fiat could create 
and which was in 1776 a condition resulting from the operation of 
forces in the decades just past.”* 

What industries did the colonies develop and how did they aid 
democracy and political independence? 

Outline of Problem: 

Plantations—Small Farms—Land Tenure and Its Effect—Domestic 
Industry—Shipbuilding—Fishing and Seagoing Classes—Iron Indus¬ 
try and the Artisan Class—Commerce and the Merchant Class— 
Towns and Cities—Women and Industries—Fur Trade and the Fron¬ 
tier—Colonial Money—Roads and Rivers and Inter-colonial Trade. 

* Usher—The Rise of the American People, page 31. 




AMERICAN HISTORY 


(21) 411 


Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Why did common tillage fail while individual endeavor suc¬ 
ceeded ? 

2. What industrial conditions favored slave labor in the South and 
not in New England? 

3. To which of the northern colonies was slave trade most profit¬ 
able? 

4. What economic reasons favored democracy in New England and 
aristocracy in the South? 

5. Compare the lot of the small planter with that of the small 
farmer. 

6. What types of immigrants were most valuable to each group of 
colonies ? Did they get the type of immigrants needed ? 

7. How did free land contribute to democratic conditions in North¬ 
ern and Middle Colonies? 

8. How did the shipping industry contribute to slavery? 

9. How do industrial conditions form social classes? Is there an 
evidence of this in the colonies? 

10. What effect on democracy has the establishment of towns? 

11. How did American industry contribute to English trade? 

12. Why is money so essential to commerce ? 

References: 

Beard, 20-36; Forman, 105-109, 150-154; West, 168-177; McLaughlin, 
114-121; Hart, 107-124; Bassett, 140-145, 157-158; Thompson, 68-71,. 
73-84; West, Am. Dem., 157-163; Forman, Our Rep., 30-35. 

IV. COLONIAL CULTURE 

(Religion, Education, and Social) 

Problem: 

“The treaty signed at Paris in 1763 marked the beginning of what 
may be called the closing period (1763-1776) of colonial history. 
What conditions prevailed in the colonies during this period ? What 
stages of social and industrial development had been reached in the 
colonies while they were yet under British control ? What kind of a 
civilization did the British colonies transmit directly to the American 
nation?”! 


t Forman—Advanced American History, page 150. 




412 (22) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


Outline of Problem: 

Religion — Anglican Church — Pilgrims — Puritanism — Catholics— 
Leadership of Churches and Ministers—iReligious Persecution—Re¬ 
ligious Toleration—Religion and Education—Relation of Church and 
State—Type in Each Group of Colonies—Salem Witchcraft—Colonies 
Founded by Religious Congregations—Theocracy versus Democracy. 

Education — Schools and Colleges — Self-education — Freedom of 
Speech—Books and Libraries. 

Social Classes—Slaves and Slavery—Indentured and Bond Servants— 

» 

The Kidnapped and Transported—Yeoman—Merchants—Artisan— 
Common Labor—Land Owner—Nationalities of Colonists. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Why did the Pilgrims favor democracy while the Established 
Church favored aristocracy? 

2. Why are free press and free speech essential to a democracy? 

3. How did colonial conditions encourage religious toleration? 

4. Should) there be a state church or not ? Why ? 

5. Who were the leading church men of colonial times ? 

6. What colonies were founded by religious congregations? 

7. How did theocratic ideas support aristocratic government in 
Massachusetts ? 

8. Does freedom in religion go hand in hand with democracy in 
government? Give examples. 

9. Why is universal education “the foundation stone” of democratic 
government ? 

10. Why do you think the New England colonies gave so much more 
attention to education than was given elsewhere ? 

11. Do you think there is any connection between Governor Berke¬ 
ley’s despotic views with regard to government and his well 
known statement relative to schools quoted on page 162 of West? 
If so, what? 

12. What is your reaction to the Peter Zenger case? 

13. Has the “Melting Pot” begun to work ? 

References: 

Forman, 154-158; Muzzey, 65-67; Beard, 7-18, 38-48; Hart, 75-79; 
West, 153-167; McLaughlin, 121-125; Bassett, 134-140, 145-155; El- 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(23) 


413 


son, 197-210; Thompson, 34-44, 50-56; West, Am. Dem., 91-97, 145- 
161; Forman, Our Rep., 35-36. 

V. WELDING OF THE COLONIES 

(Winning the Colonies for England) 

Problem: 

“When looked at broadly the struggle for the possession of North 
America presents ‘a grand historic drama in four acts, in each of 
which one contestant is driven from the field'. Thus far we have 
witnessed the performance of two of these acts and have seen two 
of the contestants worsted: we have seen Spain baffled and checked, 
and we have seen Holland driven away. The third act shows France 
and England on the stage, battling for supremacy on the American 
continent. The struggles of the third act will be the main theme of 
this chapter."* 

Outline of Problem: 

Advancing Frontiers—Unions Against the Indians—Spanish Plans— 
New France—Alliance with Iroquois—New England Confederation— 
Border Wars Result from European Wars—Conflicting Claims to the 
Ohio Valley—The French Forts—The Albany Plan of Union—The 
French and Indian War—Results of the Treaty of Paris—Financial 
Burden of the War—Commercial Depression—Political Effect on 
Colonies. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. What events foreshadow a possible federal union of the colonies? 

2. How does outside influence tend to unite groups of men? 

3. How would the events of this period develop a spirit of self- 
reliance among the colonists ? 

4. What political education did the colonists get from these unions 
and confederations? 

5. What hints of the beginnings of nationalism are to be seen in 
this phase of colonial history? What training in the art of war 
did the colonists get during this period? 

6. How did the removal of the French from America remove the 
necessity of colonial dependence on England? 

7. How did the defeat of the French open the way for westward 
migration ? How far west may these migrations now extend ? 


* Forman—Advanced American History, page 125. 





414 (24) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


8. How did westward expansion of colonies help to bring on the- 
French and Indian wars ? What geographic factors favored this 
expansion ? 

9. Is the “Appalachian Barrier” now overcome ? 

10. How can this war be termed a turning point in history ? 

11. How did the Richelieu and Connecticut rivers offer the French a 
route into English colonies? 

12. What was the effect of Champlain’s gaining the enmity of the 
Iroquois ? 

13. How did Braddock’s defeat contribute to the self-reliance of the 
colonists ? 

References: 

West, 111-113, 145-147, 178; Beard, 56-64; James and Sanford, 64; 
McLaughlin, 68-70, 101-111; Forman, 125-140; Muzzey, 77-89; James 
and Sanford, 111-125; Elson, 160-196; Bassett, 111-132. 

VI. WELDING OF THE COLONIES 

(Commercial and Political Relations With England) 

Problem: 

“The premise of the Revolution is the preceding century of colonial 
history, and, unless we study that century of growth from the point 
of view of its most significant result, we shall bq closing our eyes to 
some of the most vital facts in our history. These are the extent 
and character of the economic growth which made us strong enough 
to resist; the system of self-government which had enabled us to 
manage our own affairs so long without assistance that the severing 
of the political and constitutional ties with England was accom¬ 
plished literally by writing a few words on paper declarative of the 
existing facts; and the relations of the colonies to the mother coun¬ 
try out of which grew those tangible constitutional and political 
issues which roused so great an antagonism on either side of the 
ocean as to result in actual warfare. The growth of the colonies, 
the rise of American democracy, States’ sovereignty, these are the 
chief topics of colonial history between 1665 when the Atlantic coast 
became English and 1776 when the colonies declared themselves inde¬ 
pendent.”* 

Outline of Problem: 

English Colonial Policy—The Board of Trade—Lords of Trade— 
Navigation Acts—The Reign of Andros—The Charter of 1691— 


* Usher—The Eise of the American People, pages 81, 32. 





AMERICAN HISTORY 


(25) 415 


Cavaliers in Virginia—Bacon’s Rebellion—Discontent of Working 

Peoples—Graft in Virginia—Attitude of the English Monarchs—Ex¬ 
tension of Navigation Acts—English Attempts at Union for Admin¬ 
istration—‘Colonial Resistance to Such Attempts. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. How did English colonial policy compare with that of other 
nations ? 

2. Was the “First Navigation Act” unjust? 

3. Trace the history of the Navigation Acts. How were they un¬ 
just? What violations of democratic principles were there in 
later navigation laws ? 

4. How did the Mercantile Theory affect English colonial policy? 

5. Trace the tendency of England to exercise an increasing degree 
of political control and the parallel effort of the colonists to assert 
their rights of self-government. 

6. Explain the triange of trade from colonies to the West Indies, 
England, and thence to the colonies. 

7. Smuggling trade with Spanish and Dutch West Indies—new tri¬ 
angle: to West Indies, to Hamburg, Holland, thence to New York. 
Explain. 

8. Establishment of creditor and debtor classes. What effect had 
this on political conditions? 

9. How did conditions of the New World thrust the scepter of 
political power into the hands of the colonists? 

10. Why did the plantation make a lack of need for local govern¬ 
ment? 

11. How did the legislative assemblies increase in power? 

12. Could there be a uniform policy of business administration for 
the colonies? Of political administration? Why? 

13. How did the attitude of English kings affect colonial policy? 
Give evidence to prove your statement. 

14. Did the French and Indian war leave the colonies more or less 
dependent on England? 

15. Trace the growth of nationalism during this period. 

16. Can the close of this period be called the beginning of the end of 
the colonial period in American history? 

17. Summarize the colonial period. 


416 (26) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


References: 

Beard, 64-72; West, 114-134, 140-141, 147-154; James and Sanford, 
133-138; Muzzey, 90-94; McLaughlin, 70-72; Thompson, 87-100; West, 
Am. Dem., 116-117, 120-123, 171-187; Forman, Our Rep., 53-65. 

EVENTS LEADING DIRECTLY TO THE REVOLUTION 
Problem: 

“Almost immediately after the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, 
the colonies and the mother-country began to quarrel. What led to 
the quarrel between Great Britain and her American colonies ? What 
were the merits of the controversy? What efforts were made in 
behalf of peace? What acts of violence made peace impossible?”* 

Outline of Problem: 

George III—England’s Financial Burden Occasioned by Wars—Gren¬ 
ville’s Policy—Commercial Depressions—England’s Acts Leading to 
War—Colonial Acts Leading to War—Conflict of Principles—Division 
of Sentiment in England—Division of Sentiment in the United States 
—Doctrine of Natural Rights—Burke’s Plan of Conciliation—Conti¬ 
nental Congresses—Lord North’s “Olive Branch”—Leading Charac¬ 
ters in Both England and the Colonies. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. What common dangers had brought the Colonies together previ¬ 
ous to this? 

2. Can you justify the various tax acts from the English point of 
view? Were the English people always in favor of these laws? 

3. Were the Americans always just and fair in their resistance? 

4. Why was the Stamp tax so bitterly opposed ? It was in force in 
England then—it is in force in America now. 

5. Contrast the two views of the “Boston Massacre”. 

6. How did the Committees on Correspondence aid in uniting the 
Colonies ? 

7. How did the prosecution of the Mercantile Theory aid both the 
Colonies and England? 

8. What classes in the Colonies were the Tories and which Patriots ? 
How do you account for this? 


* Forman—Advanced American History. 




AMERICAN HISTORY 


(27) 417 


9. How did the already organized political machinery aid the united 
resistance of the Colonies ? 

10. How did the character of George III and his ministers widen the 
breach between the two countries ? 

11. How did British governmental finances affect her attitude toward 
the Colonies? 

12. What was the theory of virtual representation? Why didn't the 
colonists accept it? 

13. What significance attaches to each of the leading characters? 

14. Explain “Taxation without Representation". 

15. What were the first indications of open revolt? 

16. How did the conquest of Canada remotely help the colonists in 
their action? 

17. Bassett gives three groups of colonists—(1) the “out and out" 
Tories, (2) the Whigs, ardently protesting the plan of the King 
and Parliament to bring America under stronger British control, 
(some were extremists and others conservatives), “(3) a middle 
class, who considered the defenders of royalty either selfish or 
misled, but who looked on the Whigs as agitators. For the most 
part, they thought more of their personal affairs than politics".* 
Are there usually ’ found these three types of people in every 
crisis ? 

References: 

Hart, 126-134; Beard, 77-101; Forman, 159-173; James and Sanford, 
142-154; McLaughlin, 133-153; Muzzey, 94-104; West, 178-210; Bas¬ 
sett, 161-179; Elson, 216-231; Thompson, 102-110; West, Am. Dem., 
198-209. 

THE REVOLUTION 

Problem: 

After the Declaration of Independence, the colonists faced the prob¬ 
lem of maintaining this declared independence by force of arms with 
a poorly organized government and no organized military establish¬ 
ment. 

Outline of Problem: 

The Drift Into War to Secure the Rights of Englishmen—The Con¬ 
tinental Congresses—Incidents Leading to a Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence—Organization of the State Governments and the Confedera- 


* Bassett—A Short History of the United States, page 174. 



418 (28) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


tion—The Political Phases of the Revolution—Foreign Relations and 
the Revolution—The Finances of the Revolution—The Military Phase 
of the Revolution—The Civil War Phase of the Revolution—Propa¬ 
ganda and the Revolution—English Opposition to the War—Women 
and the War—The Treaty of Peace—The Great Men of the Period 
(both English and Colonial). 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Why did efforts at conciliation fail? 

2. Show how it was aristocracy in England and not the English 
people that brought on the Revolution. How does the English 
government of today compare with the English government dur¬ 
ing the American Revolution? 

3. Which states declared for independence? 

4. How did existing political machinery aid in the formation of new 
state governments? 

5. Give examples of restriction of suffrage. 

6. Why was an efficient national government not formed ? 

7. Outline the main problems of the Congress. 

8. What parts of the Declaration of Independence “still live”? 

9. How did ultra democratic principles handicap America during the 
war? 

10. What European conditions aided the Colonies in their revolution? 

11. What classes of people were the Tories? How do you account 

for this? 

© * 

12. Can you justify the actions of the Patriots against the Tories? 

13. Compare the confiscation of the property of the Tories with the 
confiscation of the property of Germans during the late great 
war. 

14. Show that the major military events of the war may be divided 
into three sections that follow each other logically as well as 
chronologically; the war in New England, the war in the Middle 
States, and the war in the South. 

15. Outline the leading campaigns of the war according to the above. 

16. What objectives did the British seek to attain in the campaigns 
in the Middle and Southern states ? 

17. Explain the tremendous value of George Rogers Clark’s cam¬ 
paigns in the West. 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(29) 419 


18. Trace on a map the campaigns of the war. 

19. Was the American army ever equal, from a military standpoint, 
to the British army? 

20. What were the chief geographical assets of the colonial troops ? 

21. How did the organization of colonial industry hinder British 
success ? 

22. Why is the Battle of Saratoga called by historians one of the 
“decisive battles of the world"? 

23. Illustrate by specific example the handicap to the colonials in un¬ 
trained officers. How did foreign officers help overcome this ? 

24. Compare the work of the women in the Revolutionary war with 
their work in the last war. 

25. Why did the foreign countries, especially France, aid the colonists 
in the Revolution? 

26. Make a list of striking individual events in the Revolution that 
stand out as appeals to patriotism. How do they compare with 
events like the Lusitania affair? The death of Edith Cavell ? 
Chateau Thierry? 

27. Make a list of stirring phrases designed to arouse patriotism 
which took form during this period. Compare with “Spurlos 
Versenkt”, “a scrap of paper", “On ne passe pas", “Remember 
the Maine", and “On to Richmond". 

28. Why was the winter at Valley Forge the “darkest hour" of the 
Revolution ? 

29. List the great men and great women of the Revolution, and 
opposite list the most significant fact that attaches to each per¬ 
sonage. 

30. Who were the most efficient propagandists of the Revolution? 

31. Discuss significance of a new English speaking nation. 

References: 

West, 211-243; Beard, 100-137; Hart, 134-172; Muzzey, 104-132; For¬ 
man, 173-198; James and Sanford, 154-182; McLaughlin, 154-179; 
Bassett, 180-229; Elson, 235-317; Thompson, 110-119; Forman, Our 
Rep., 65-90. 


420 (30) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

Problem: 

“Two causes operated to prevent .... union .... one was the 
peoples' inbred jealousy of any authority that seemed to have even 
the appearance of centralization .... the other lies in the fact of 
the peculiar environment of the colonial era out of which the colonies 
were trying to emerge. 

The people were attached to their local institutions and scarcely a 
man in 1783 loved America more than his state. It was a most 
difficult problem to lead the people to repose a portion of their con¬ 
fidence and affection in a new system of government."* 

Outline of Problem: 

The Articles of Confederation—Weakness of the Central Govern¬ 
ment—Strife Between the States—Anarchy and Uprisings within the 
States—Unfriendly Attitude of Spain and England—The Newburg 
Addresses—Commercial Confusion—Financial Disorder—Fiat Money 
—Inadequacies of the Articles—Problems of the South and Rela¬ 
tions with Spain—Northwest Territory—Western Land Claims of the 
States—American Colonial Policy (West, 259)—Jefferson’s Plan of 
Organization—Northwest Ordinance—The Ohio Company as a Type—v. 
Government Survey—School Lands—Settlement of Northwest Terri¬ 
tory—Indian Troubles—British Occupation of Northwest Territory. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. What authority did Congress have under the Articles of Con¬ 
federation? What prevented its enforcing this authority? 

2. Why were the Articles of Confederation called a “League of 
Friendship"? 

3. Why was our government held in contempt by European govern¬ 
ments ? 

4. What was the cause and nature of our troubles with England? 

5. Why should we have Federal coinage of money rather than state 
coinage ? 

6. Why should the central government alone have power to make 
treaties ? 

7. Did the United States and England conscientiously carry out the 
provisions of the Treaty of Paris ? Can you give reasons ? 

8. Was Spain right in her stand that England had no right to grant 
to America free navigation of the Mississippi? 


* Mace—Method in History, page 117. 





AMERICAN HISTORY 


(31) 421 


9. What do you think of Maryland's stand on the question of west¬ 
ern claims? Can we say that Maryland gave the United States 
a territorial policy? 

10. Explain the connection between the inefficient government and 
the extreme degree of unrest and disorder throughout the coun¬ 
try. 

11. Give specific instances of the bad feeling that characterized the 
time. 

12. What was the great need of the time from the standpoint of 
government ? 

References: 

Beard, 139-143; West, 257-282; Forman, 199-210; McLaughlin, ISO- 
189; Hart, 172-182; James and Sanford, 183-195; Muzzey, 135-141; 
Elson, 318-326; Bassett, 217-240; Thompson, 121-130; West, Am. 
Dem., 263-271; Forman, Our Rep., 111-122. 

THE CONSTITUTION 

Problem: 

Experience proved that the government of the Articles of Confedera¬ 
tion could not adequately cope with the problems confronting it. 
State quarrelled with state; anarchy reigned within states; mutter- 
ings of discontent were coming over the mountains from Kentucky 
and Tennessee, These things rapidly consolidated public opinion in 
favor of a convention to modify the form of the central government. 
How was this done? 

Outline of Problem: 

Experience with the Articles of Confederation—“Centripetal and 
Centrifugal Forces" (Forman, 211)—Preconstitutional Conventions— 
The Constitutional Convention—The Problems of the Convention 
(Beard, 146)—The Virginia Plan—The New Jersey Plan—The Three 
Great Compromises — The Form of Government — The Theory of 
Checks and Balances—Influence of Existing State Constitutions— 
Enumerated and Implied Powers—Restriction of Powers of States— 
Provisions for Amendment and Ratification—The Ratification of the 
Constitution—Famous Men of the Convention. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. What events occasioned the calling of the Constitutional Con¬ 
vention ? 

Narrate the steps that led to the Constitutional Convention. 


2 . 


422 (32) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


3. What was the fundamental achievement of the framers of the 
Constitution? (See Muzzey, 147.) 

4. Enumerate important ways in which the Constitution is superior 
to the Articles of Confederation. 

5. Give evidences from the Constitution of a fear or distrust of 
democracy. 

6. Who, among the members of the Convention, distrusted democ¬ 
racy ? 

7. Should constitutions contain a “Bill of Rights”? 

8. Outline the arguments for the Constitution. 

9. Outline the arguments against the Constitution. 

10. Account for the provisions for ratification. 

11. What geographic factors argued against the Constitution? 

12. What economic and industrial factors influenced the Convention? 

13. Who were the leaders of the democratic wing, of the non-demo- 
cratic wing, in the Convention? 

14. Show how we have a dual type of government—neither national 
nor state, but national and state. 

15. Show how the problem of slavery is beginning to influence polit¬ 
ical discussion. 

References: 

West, 283-312; Forman, 211-221; McLaughlin, 189-197; Beard, 143- 

161; Muzzey, 141-154; James and Sanford, 197-207; Hart, 182-192; 

Bassett, 238-254; Elson, 327-337; Thompson, 130-134; West, Am. 

Dem., 272-299; Forman, Our Rep., 123-138. 


FEDERALIST SUPREMACY 

Problem: 

The Constitution having been framed and adopted, the next problem 
was that of putting into operation the form of government it pro¬ 
vided. 

Outline of Problem: 

Organization of New Government—'Inauguration of Washington— 
Executive Department and the Cabinet—Organization of the Judiciary 
and the Eleventh Amendment—Bill of Rights Amendments—Funding 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(33) 423 


the National Debt—Assumption of State Debts—The Tariff—The 
United States Bank—The Excise Taxes and the Whiskey Rebellion— 
The Mint and Coinage Policy—Hamilton and Finances. 

Rise of Political Parties—Loose and Strict Constructionists—Com¬ 
mercial versus Agricultural Interests—Aristocracy versus Democracy 
—English Sympathies versus French Sympathies—Hamilton versus 
Jefferson—Washington as a Political Leader. 

Effect of Foreign Relations—Trouble with England and Jay’s Treaty 
—The French Revolution—Effect of Reign of Terror—Intrigues of 
Genet and Fauchet—Washington’s Proclamation of Neutrality— 
Paine versus Burke—Washington’s Farewell Address—Adams’ Elec¬ 
tion—The XYZ Affair—The “War with France”—(Alien and Sedition 
Laws—Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions—Treaty with Spain and 
the West—Indian Troubles in the Northwest. 

Decline of Federalist Popularity—Election of Jefferson and the 
Twelfth Amendment. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Why should a Constitution contain a Bill of Rights? 

2. Outline the provisions of the Bill of Rights in our American Con¬ 
stitution. 

3. Who were the leaders of the first administration? 

4. What were the main functions of each of Washington's cabinet 
offices ? 

5. Should the national government have assumed the state debts? 
Why? 

6. How did Hamilton’s measures strengthen the new government? 

7. What did the location of the national capitol have to do with the 
adoption of Hamilton’s measures? Can you see “playing politics” 
in this ? 

8. Do you believe in secret sessions of a representative assembly? 
Why? 

9. Explain the system of federal courts ? Over what cases does the 
Supreme Court have jurisdiction? 

10. What is the purpose of political parties? What is meant by 
“party government”? 

11. What is meant by “loose” and “strict” construction? Are you a 
“loose” or “strict” constructionist? 

12. Would you have been a Federalist or Republican? 


424 (34) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


13. By what authority did England claim right to interfere with our 
commerce ? Is the practice carried on now during war ? 

14. Was the United States “in honor bound”, as Genet claimed, to 
help France? 

15. Why was the Jay treaty so unpopular? Watch for a recurrence 
of “impressment of seamen”. 

16. Trace the difficulties with France during this period. 

17. Why were the alien and sedition laws unwise? 

18. What principle was set forth in the Virginia and Kentucky reso¬ 
lutions ? 

19. Show how “States Rights” has begun to influence political discus¬ 
sion. 

References: 

James and Sanford, 215-240; Muzzey, 155-173; Beard, 162-185; Hart, 
209-236; West, 313-353; Forman, 222-242; McLaughlin, 198-222; Bas¬ 
sett, 256-287; Elson, 341-375; West, Am. Dem., 300-315; Forman, 
Our Rep., 139-152, 153-160, 166-182. 

THE REVOLUTION OF 1800 AND THE ADMINISTRATION OF 

THOMAS JEFFERSON 

Problem: 

“Even had the Federalists been supported at first by a clear majority 
of the people .... Jefferson would have had little difficulty in de¬ 
feating them eventually.” According to his ideas, “the Federal gov¬ 
ernment should be ‘The American Department of Foreign Affairs'. 
The strictest possible construction should be placed upon the broad 
phrases of the Constitution; the Federal government should do only 
what was absolutely necessary, never what seemed merely desirable; 
all else should be left to the states.”* 

How did Jefferson succeed in carrying out his ideas and what con¬ 
ditions prevented his adhering to this policy? 

Outline of Problem: 

Election of Jefferson and Twelfth Amendment—Jefferson's Inaugura¬ 
tion—Federalist Enmity and Midnight Appointments—The New Capi¬ 
tal—Jeffersonian Principles—Financial Policy—The War with Tripoli 
—Louisiana Purchase and Western Exploration—Burr's Conspiracy— 
Death of Alexander Hamilton—The European War and Neutral 
Trade—The Embargo—The Non-Intercourse Act—Famous Men of 
the Period. 


* Usher—The Rise of the American People, page 194. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 


(35) 425 


Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Trace Jefferson’s political career. 

2. Account for'Jefferson’s political policies. 

3. What is the meaning of the “Revolution of 1800”? 

4. Indicate beginnings of the “spoils system”. 

5. What European conditions led to the purchase of Louisiana? 

6. What significance had the Mississippi river to western United 
States ? 

7. Discuss the significance of the Louisiana Purchase. 

8. Outline on a map the Louisiana territory. What states were 
included ? 

9. What significance had the Lewis and Clark expedition? 

10. How did the purchase of Louisiana force Jefferson to change his 
political policies ? 

11. How did Jefferson’s policy weaken the United States as a military 
nation ? 

12. How did Jefferson manage to “keep us out of war”? 

References: 

Forman, 255-261; West, 369-394; Muzzey, 174-179; McLaughlin, 223- 
235; James and Sanford, 241-253; Beard, 186-193; Hart, 237-251; 
Bassett, 287-312; Elson, 376-407; West, Am. Dem., 331-336, 355-365; 
Forman, Our Rep., 183-195. 


THE WAR OF 1812 

Problem: 

The new government is confronted with the difficult problem of pro¬ 
tecting the commerce of its people against the depredations of a 
warring Europe. 

Outline of Problem: 

England’s Interference with Commerce—Napoleon and American 
Commerce—Friendship with Russia—Clay and Calhoun and the War 
Party—Madison’s Acquiescence—State of America’s Preparedness— 
War on the Sea—The War on Land—The Treaty of Peace—Results 
of the War—The Hartford Convention and the Discrediting of the 
Federalists—New Policy of the Republican Party. 


426 (36) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Why did the “War Party” consist of men from the south and 
west? Why was the north and east opposed to the war? 

2. Outline events leading directly into war. 

3. Trace the history of New England's opposition to the war. 

4. How did Jackson become the hero of the hour? Jackson’s vic¬ 
tory at New Orleans should be noted as one of the most striking 
events in our history. 

5. Why did the “War Hawks” choose to fight England rather than 
France? What would you have done? 

6. Why was America nearly always ingloriously defeated on land 
in this war except at New Orleans? 

7. What principle is back of the resolutions of the Hartford Con¬ 
vention ? 

8. How is the efficiency of the American navy to be accounted for? 

References: 

Muzzey, 180-189; Forman, 261-277; Beard, 193-201; West, 395-408; 

McLaughlin, 236-255; Hart, 252-264; James and Sanford, 253-270; 

Bassett, 313-340; Elson, 408-450; West, Am. Dem., 380-392; Forman, 

Our Rep., 199-217; Thompson, 141-148. 


DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST 

Problem: 

“American social development has been continually beginning over 
again on the frontier .... This expansion westward with its new 
opportunity; this continuous touch of the simplicity of primitive so¬ 
ciety furnished the forces dominating American character.” (West, 
270.) 

The historical wave of westward migration has carried the race 
across the “Appalachian Barrier”. “Between 1800 and 1820, the 
population of the West and Southwest increased nearly two million 
and nearly one-half million square miles of territory .... was 
brought under the influence of American civilization.” (Forman, 
278.) 

What effect will this expansion have on the United States as a 
nation ? 

Outline of Problem: 

The Southwest—Watauga and Tennessee—The Articles of the Wa¬ 
tauga Association—Kentucky Settlement—Cumberland Settlements 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(37) 427 


—The Southwest and the Revolution—Relations with New Orleans— 
Southwestern Territory Admitted as States—The Problem of Mis¬ 
souri. 

The Northwest—The Campaign of George Rogers Clark—The North¬ 
west at the End of the Revolution—Western Land Claims of Eastern 
States—The Maryland Plan of Ceding Western Lands—Development 
of an American Territorial Policy—Pittsburg—Wheeling—The North¬ 
west Ordinance—The Land Companies—Formation and Admission of 
Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. 

Transportation Problems—Western Routes—Methods of Travel—De¬ 
velopment of Trades, Roads, and Canals—The Steamboat—The Na¬ 
tional Road. 

Economic and Social Problems—Calhoun’s Bonus Bill—Land Com¬ 
panies—Government Survey and the School Lands—Cheap Land and 
Democracy—Land Tenure and Economic Independence—Immigration 
—The War and Westward Migration—The Development of the Small 
Farm—Social Customs—Religion—Motives for Migration. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Woodrow Wilson says “The West is the great word of our his¬ 
tory”. Explain what he means by this. 

2. Why has the West always been the “Most American” part of 
America ? 

3. What traits of character did life in the frontier settlements de¬ 
velop ? 

4. Explain why the West has been democratic, both politically and 
socially. 

5. How did the development of the West increase the spirit of 
Nationalism ? 

6. Explain how both East and West were benefited by routes of 
transportation. 

7. Indicate the routes of travel to the West. Why were certain 
routes followed into the West? 

8. Illustrate how geographic factors conditioned the settlements in 
the West. 

9. How did the Indian affect western settlement? 

10. What significance attaches to each of the following men: Boone, 
Robertson, Sevier, Henderson, George Rogers Clark, Anthony 
Wayne, Gallatin, Calhoun? 

11. Indicate on a map the location of the chief waterways, canals, 
and roads in the United States at this time. 


428 (38) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


12. Locate each: the “First West”, the “Second West”, “Third West”. 
(See West, History of American People.) 

13. Did the Federalists favor internal improvements? Why? 

14. Did the nation or the states make the most internal improve¬ 
ments ? Why ? 

15. Why were the Federalists so opposed to the admission of the 
New States? 

16. Who were the “Eastern Friends of the West”? (Beard, 231.) 

17. How do the Appalachian mountains now constitute a barrier? 

18. What geographic factors favor the development of the West? 

19. Make a population map of the United States in 1820. 

20. Outline the preparations that you would make if you were mi¬ 
grating from Washington to Ohio to settle on a farm at this 
time. 

21. What were the characteristics of western society? 

% 

References: 

McLaughlin, 263-269; Hart, 265-277; James and Sanford, 273-281; 
Muzzey, 191-196; Forman, 141-149, 249-252, 278-293; West, 244-270, 
409-422; Beard, 217-237; Bassett, 341-345, 355-357; Elson, 472-477; 
Thompson, 160-178; West, Am. Dem., 238-259, 342-348, 366-369, 370- 
379; Forman, Our Rep., 160-166, 218-234. 


NATIONALISM AND SECTIONALISM 

Problem: 

“At the opening of this period only the professional classes, the well- 
to-do and well educated were imbued with a spirit of nationality, and 
even these were not thoroughly devoted to this idea and furnished 
many examples of opposition. The mass of the common people were 
certainly more given to local interests and more controlled by state 

pride than by national sentiment.The mutual conquest of 

nationality and democracy reached its fruition between 1820 and 

1840.In the decade from 1830 to 1840, democracy and nationality 

triumphed together while these two forces were reveling in their 

mutual victory, sectionalism was already raising its head.”* 

What forces and events tended toward nationalism and what toward 
sectionalism ? 


* Mace—Method in History, pages 131, 173, 180. 





AMERICAN HISTORY 


(39) 429 


Outline of Problem: 

The “American System”—“Era of Good Feeling”—Significant Su¬ 
preme Court Decisions—The Tariff of 1816—Second United States 
Bank—The Commercial Crisis—The Tariff of 1824—The Missouri 
Compromise—Balancing Free and Slave States—Geographical Sec¬ 
tionalism—Industrial Sectionalism—Social Sectionalism—“Favorite 
Sons” and the Election of 1824—‘The “Tariff of Abominations”— 
Georgia Opposes the National Government—Monroe and Adams 
(J. Q.) as Presidents—Jackson’s Election. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. How did the Supreme Court decisions strengthen the nation? 

2. What was the ruling in each of the following cases and how was 
each significant? Marbury vs. Madison; McCulloch vs. Mary¬ 
land; Cohens vs. Virginia; Gibbons vs. Ogden; The Dartmouth 
College case. 

3. Account for the change of the Republicans from “strict” to 
“loose” constructionists. 

4. How did “good times” help to bring on the panic of 1819 ? 

5. Why was a compromise on the admission of Missouri necessary ? 
Was it a satisfying compromise? Why? 

6. What significance for the future had this compromise? What 
had the states rights policy to do with the compromise? 

7. Review the history of slavery issues in politics. 

8. How did the cotton gin affect the extension of slavery? How did 
it help to develop the South, as a section? 

9. How did the steamboat help to develop the West as a section? 

10. How did social ideas and ideals help to develop sectionalism ? 

11. Indicate roughly the sectionalizing of political sentiment. 

12. Did the fact that there were “favorite sons” add to sectionalism 
or not? Why? 

13. Account for Calhoun’s “about face” on the tariff question. 

14. Why did the New England states and the South change places 
on the tariff question? 

15. Upon what principle did Georgia defy the national government 
on the Indian question? Review the history of “states rights” 
issues in national politics and government. 



430 (40) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


References: 

James and Sanford, 271-272, 281-286, 289-296; Muzzey, 196-200, 210- 
226, 247-255; McLaughlin, 256-262, 269-273, 276-289; Hart, 275-280, 
295-304; Forman, 294-300, 303; Bassett, 357-360, 363-375, 377-390; 
Elson, 451-472; Beard, 201-205, 207-216; West, 429-441; Thompson, 
190-191, 244-245; West, Am. Dem., 411-461; Forman, Our Rep., 235- 
249, 254-258. 

THE MONROE DOCTRINE AND ACQUISITION OF FLORIDA 
Problem: 

Every nation at certain times in its history enunciates a foreign 
policy. Certain European events initiated such enunciation by the 
American government. 

What events occasioned the statement of this foreign policy, and 
what was the policy? 

* 

Outline of Problem: 

Political Geography in 1815—The Acquisition of Florida—The Con¬ 
quest of Florida—Central and South American Rebellions—Recogni¬ 
tion of Latin-American Republics — The Holy Alliance — Russian 
Policy Toward Russian-America—The “Monroe Doctrine” of Foreign 
Policy—England’s Attitude. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Outline on a map the territorial claims in the Americas. 

2. What was the Florida “Robbery”? (Muzzey, 265, and West, 
464.) 

3. What was Jackson’s attitude toward the Florida question? 

4. What European conditions led to the Holy Alliance? 

5. Why did England favor the Monroe Doctrine? 

6. Watch effect of Monroe Doctrine in future foreign relations. 

7. Is the Monroe Doctrine the “corner stone” of American foreign 
policy today? 

8. Give reasons for our interest in Latin America. 

9. Relate the events that resulted in the announcement of the Mon¬ 
roe Doctrine. 

10. What benefits have come as a result of our adherence to this 
doctrine ? 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(41) 431 


\ v 

References: 

Hart, 283-294; Forman, 300-303; Beard, 205-207; Muzzey, 201-209; 
McLaughlin, 273-274; West, 389-392, 423-428; James and Sanford, 
287-289; Bassett, 375-377; Elson, 463; West, Am. Dem., 374-378, 407- 
410; Forman, Our Rep., 249-254. 

THE NEW DEMOCRACY 

Problem: 

As was indicated in a previous chapter, the party of Jefferson had 
made a sort of about face with regard to party policy, becoming the 
conservative party. The old democratic order contained many aristo¬ 
cratic features. The election of Jackson was the climax of a demo¬ 
cratic movement that had been in progress for some years. 

What occasioned this new democracy and what resulted from its 
being put into practice ? 


Outline of Problem * 

Pre-Jackson Democracy—Aristocratic Features—Restricted Suffrage 
—'Propertied Office Holders—Dorr's Rebellion—Landed Aristocracy— 
Monroe as the end of the Old Order—Freehold and Democracy—De¬ 
velopment of Frontier Democracy—Watauga Articles of Association 
as an Example. 

The Reign of Andrew Jackson—“The Revolution of 1828"—Jackson’s 
Character and Training—Democratic Significance of His Election— 
“The Spoils System"—The “Kitchen Cabinet"—Calhoun and States 
Rights—The Webster-Hayne Debate—The Tariff and the South Caro¬ 
lina Nullification—Jackson and States Rights—Clay’s Compromise 
Tariff—The War on the United States Bank and the Election—Clay 
and the Whig Party—Removal of Deposits—Censure by the Senate— 
“Wildcat Banks" and Speculation—The Specie Circular—The Panic 
of 1837—The Establishment of Subtreasuries—The Nominating Con¬ 
vention. 

The New Whig Party—Van Buren’s Administration—The Election of 
1840. 


Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Outline the growth of democracy up to Jackson’s administration. 

2. Outline the arguments for restricted suffrage. For manhood 
suffrage. 

3. Was Dorr’s Rebellion a healthy political revolution? 

4. What conditions in the South favored aristocracy? What condi¬ 
tions in New England favored aristocracy? 


432 (42) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


5. What conditions in the West favored social as well as political 
democracy ? 

6. Why does free land and the small freehold develop democracy ? 

7. Do you consider a “Kitchen Cabinet” a wise thing? 

8. How was the “Spoils System” abused by politicians? Do you 
believe in the “Spoils System”? 

9. On what principle did South Carolina nullify the tariff ? Can 
you foresee trouble arising out of this in the future ? How was 
it that both sides of the controversy claimed victory in Clay’s 
compromise tariff? 

10. Outline the main points of the Webster-Hayne Debate. 

11. What conditions brought on the panic of 1837? 

12. Are nominating conventions a democratic invention? Explain. 

13. Explain the independent treasury system. 

14. Sketch the history of the protective tariff. What theory under¬ 
lies it? 

References: 

Beard, 238-270; Muzzey, 227-245; West, 442-446, 476-503; Hart, 323- 

336; Forman, 306-325; McLaughlin, 290-314; James and Sanford, 

297-298, 305-314; Bassett, 392-435; Elson, 478-508; West, Am. Dem., 

477-478, 453-474; Forman, Our Rep., 261-294. 

WESTWARD EXPANSION 


Problem: 

“ ‘We shall not send an emigrant beyond the Mississippi in a hundred 
years,’ exclaimed Livingston, the principal author of the Louisiana 
purchase. When he made this astounding declaration, he doubtless 
had before his mind’s eye the great stretches of unoccupied lands 
between the Appalachians and the Mississippi. He also had before 
him the history of the English colonies which told him of the two 
centuries required to settle the seaboard region. To practical men, 
his prophecy did not seem far wrong; but before the lapse of half 
that time there appeared beyond the Mississippi a tier of new states, 
reaching from the Gulf of Mexico to the southern .boundary of Min¬ 
nesota, and a new commonwealth on the Pacific Ocean where Amer¬ 
ican emigrants had raised the Bear flag of California.”* How was 
this accomplished? 


* Beard—History of the United States, page 271. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 


(43) 433 


v 

Outline of Problem: 

The “Middle West’’ (uniformity; extent; Missouri; Arkansas; Michi¬ 
gan; Wisconsin; Iowa; Minnesota)—Annexation of Texas — The 
Mexican War—Problems Arising out of the War—The Pacific Coast 
(the Oregon problem; California, its conquest, settlement and de¬ 
velopment)—Utah and Its Problems—New Mexico. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Account for the settlement of Oregon and California. 

2. Discuss the exploration of the Rocky mountain region. 

3. Which of the trails of that day crossed Nebraska and where was 
its eastern terminus ? 

4. On a map of Nebraska, trace the trail across the state. What 
portions of the far west were reached by those who followed this 
trail? (See map, Beard, page 287, and descriptions in Forman, 
pages 348 ff.) 

5. What was the extent of the Oregon country? What states have 
been formed from the part received by us in the settlement of the 
question ? 

6. Indicate on a map the western territories in 1850. 

7. Indicate on a map the extent of the territory ceded by Mexico. 
What states were made from this territory? 

References: 

West, 515-519; James and Sanford, 327-333; Hart, 340-350; Muzzey, 
264-280; McLaughlin, 320-338; Forman, 345-368; Beard, 271-294; 
Bassett, 438-450, 461-465, 480-482; Elson, 516-540; Forman, Our 
Rep., 301-305, 324-339. 


THE STRUGGLE OYER SLAVERY 

Problem : 

The rising sun of American history cast many long shadows into the 
future. The long black shadow of slavery reaches from 1819 to the 
present time. How did the slavery issue affect national history up 
to the time of the secession of the southern states ? 

Outline of Problem: 

Slavery as an Institution—Origin and Early History of Slavery— 
Decline of Slavery in North—Growth of Slavery in South—Legal 


434 (44) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


Status of Slaves—Slave Life—Ethics of Slavery—Economics of 
Slavery—Extent of Slavery in 1850—(Alleged Benefits of Slavery— 
Slave Trade—Free Negroes—Poor Whites—The Slaveholding Aris¬ 
tocracy—Abolition Sentiment and Leaders—Pro-slavery Leaders. 

Political Aspects—National Aspects of Slavery Question—“Gag” 
Resolution in Congress—^Missouri Compromise—Wilmot Proviso— 
Free Soil Party—Election of 1848—The Compromise of 1850—Clay, 
Calhoun, Webster—Fugitive Slave Law of I860—.Personal Liberty 
Laws—’“Underground Railways”—Uncle Tom’s Cabin—Pro-slavery 
Election, 1852—Kansas-Nebraska Bill—“Squatter” Sovereignty—War 
in Kansas—Attack on Sumter—Lecompton Constitution—Republican 
Party Organized—Dred Scott Decision—John Brown’s Raid—Lincoln- 
Douglas Debates—Political Parties and Election of 1860. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Why was the struggle over slavery called the “Irrepressible Con¬ 
flict”? 

2. Trace the history of slavery up to time of the Missouri Com¬ 
promise. 

3. Why did slavery decline in the North? What type of slavery 
was in vogue there? 

4. Why did both geography and invention favor slavery in the 
South ? 

5. Who were leading abolitionists ? 

6. How does slavery degrade common labor and make for a class 
of “poor whites”? 

7. How does slavery tend to establish an aristocracy? 

8. Outline Calhoun’s defense of slavery. 

9. How did the acquisition of new territory affect the slavery ques¬ 
tion ? 

10. Why was Webster so severely criticised for his “Seventh of 
March” speech? Were there just grounds for the criticism? 

11. Summarize Clay’s work in slavery legislation. 

12. Trace the rise of slave owners to the domination of national 
politics. 

13. What was the “Gag Rule”? Why was it made? 

14. Why did the Compromise of 1850 fail? 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(45) 435 


15. Why was the Douglas Doctrine of “Squatter” Sovereignty des¬ 
tined to failure? 

16. What was the “Business Man's Peace”? 

17. What significance had the Dred Scott decision? 

18. Account for the opposition to slavery shown by prominent Revo¬ 
lutionary leaders who lived in the South. How did the invention 
of the cotton gin affect slavery? 

19. Review briefly legislation favorable to slavery during the first 
thirty years of our national existence. (See Muzzey, page 249.) 

20. Why was the Missouri Compromise so serious a matter? What 
was its significance? 

21. What principle did the Republican party stand for in the early 
period of its history? 

22. Outline the main arguments in the Lincoln-Douglas debates. 

23. Explain the significance of the John Brown affair. 

24. Who were the candidates and what were the issues of the elec¬ 
tions of 1848? 1852? 1856? 

25. Account for the rise of the new Republican party. What was its 
platform in 1860? 

26. Account for the split in the Democratic party in 1860. What 
parties were organized? Give the main planks in the platform 
of each. Who were candidates ? 


References: 

McLaughlin, 315-320, 335-349, 351-384; Forman, 369-408; Beard, 316- 
343; Muzzey, 247-263, 282-319; West, 504-514, 520-540,548-551; James 
and Sanford, 314-318, 333-352, 359-367; Hart, 314-320, 350-355, 382- 
400; Bassett, 451-458, 485-509; Elson, 509-513, 540-615; Thompson, 
279-301; West, Am. Dem., 479-515; Forman, 241-246, 315-320, 358- 
360, 363-392. 


Problem : 


THE RISE OF A PEOPLE 
(Before the Civil War) 


How have inventive genius, business enterprise, and free labor, com¬ 
bined in the exploitation of vast natural resources, made the United 
States a great industrial nation?* How have American energy and 
idealism developed a great people? 


*See Beard—History of the United States, page 296. 



436 (46) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


Outline of Problem: 

I. The People and Their Natural Resources 

The Geographic Setting—Coast Lines—Interior Waterways—Water 
Power—Agricultural Lands—Soil—Climate—Lumber Resources— 
Mineral Resources—Fur Resources—Mountain Barriers—Mountain 
Gaps—Indians. 

Population—Social Stratification in North—Social Stratification in 
South—Western Type—Occupations—Private Life—Social Life— 
Frontier Life—-Intellectual Activity—Inventive Genius—Immigra¬ 
tion (Irish; Germans; Scandinavians; Others)—Migration—Growth 
of Population—Effect of Industrial Revolution—American Idealism. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. How has the coast line of the United States affected the develop¬ 
ment of the nation ? 

2. How did the interior waterways affect American industrial his¬ 
tory? 

3. What effect has the Fall Line had on American industrial his¬ 
tory ? 

4. What geographic factors determine the location of great indus¬ 
trial centers ? 

5. What occasioned the social stratification in the North? In the 
South ? 

6. How do you account for the amount of drunkenness ? 

7. How do you account for the wide reading of Emerson, Carlyle, 
Huxley, etc., by the Westerners? 

8. What factors make for stratification in society? 

9. What particular things have each, the Irish, the Germans, the 
Scandinavians, contributed to American civilization? 

References: 

Hart, 306-14; West, 354-64; Beard, 295-303; James and Sanford, 298- 
303; McLaughlin, 256-67; West, Am. Dem., 393-404; Elson, 621-23, 
378, 478-79; Thompson, 175-84, 192-94, 148-57; Bassett, 2, 11, 134-37, 
461-63, 341-43, 465-69; Forman, 359-60, 413; Forman, Our Rep., 222- 
23, 346-47, 231-33, 225-26. 

II. Invention, Industry, and Business Enterprise 

Invention and Industry—Farm Implements and Agriculture—Spin¬ 
ning and Weaving Machinery and the Factory System—Woodwork- 



AMERICAN HISTORY 


(47) 437 


ing Machinery and Lumbering — Household Improvements — The 
Steam Engine and Railways—Oil and Coal Development—Mining— 
Iron Industry—Telegraph and Communication—Printing Press and 
Newspapers—Photography—(Invention and the Industrial Revolu¬ 
tion—Development of Industrial Corporations—Leading Inventors. 

Transportation and Commerce — Railway Development — Canals — 
Ocean Trade—River Trade—Oriental Trade—Fur Trade—Develop¬ 
ment of Business Organization—Effect of Invention on Commerce— 
Banking and Finance. 

General Effects of Industrial Revolution—Division of Labor—De¬ 
struction of Domestic Industry—Growth of Cities—United States as 
an Industrial Nation — Creation of Capitalist Class — Creation of 
Labor Class — Immigration — Urbanizing of Population — Effect on 
South. 

Industrial Revolution and National Politics*—Commercial and Polit¬ 
ical Union of East and West—Estrangement of South. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. How did the development of spinning and weaving machinery 
affect industry in the North? Agriculture in the South? Why 
did not the South develop cotton manufacturing? 

2. What did the canals contribute to commerce? Were they worth 
their cost? Show how canals served to unite the East and West 
commercially. 

3. Why did Pennsylvania become the center of the iron industry? 

4. How did coal contribute to the extension of industry? 

5. Why did the railways supersede the canals as a system of trans¬ 
portation ? 

6. List the inventions that had the most far-reaching effects in 
American industry. In American culture. 

7. What factors contributed to the development of great industrial 
corporations and commercial organizations? 

8. Show how banks are essential to commercial enterprise. 

9. Why has labor not always received its just share of production? 

10. Are great cities a menace or a blessing to society ? 

11. Why did the East and West combine in support of a protective 
tariff ? 


* Beard—History of the United States, page 296. . 



438 (48) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


12. How did the industrial revolution contribute to political, social, 
and industrial sectionalism? 

13. How did the industrial revolution contribute to nationalism ? 

14. In what way were economic conditions in the South more un¬ 
favorable to industry than in the North? 

15. What economic forces were making the interests of the East and 
West more nearly the same? 

16. What factors have contributed to make New York larger than 
Boston or Philadelphia ? 

References: 

Beard, 307-14; Hart, 358-380, 430-31; Muzzey, 155-56; West, Am. 
Dem., 449-452, 516-18, 368-69, 352; McLaughlin, 283-85, 234-35; 
James and Sanford, 356,490-92,353-56; Thompson, 198-206, 310-14, 
249, 253-59; Bassett, 464-65; Forman, 333-36, 243-49; Forman, Our 
Rep., 299-301, 413-15, 419-20, 305-06. 

III. The Human Element 

Labor—Invention and Labor—Rise of Capitalist Class—Effect of 
Free Land—The Long Labor Day—Child Labor—Women Workers— 
Rise of Unions — Collective Bargaining — Attitude of Propertied 
Classes—Attitude of Courts—Labor and Politics—Van Buren and 
the Ten Hour Day—Idealism of Labor. 

% 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. What occasioned the first unions of laborers? 

2. What is the effect on society of the “sun-up to sun-down” day? 

3. Do you favor an eight or ten hour labor day? Why? 

4. What is the law in Nebraska governing woman and child labor? 

5. Why does the formation of large industrial corporations neces¬ 
sitate the formation of labor unions for “Collective bargaining”? 

6. Why did the laborers make demands for universal education ? 
References: 

Hart, 272-3, 269-71; West 253, 260-62, 541-43; Beard, 300-04, 307-08; 
McLaughlin, 262-3, 283-85; Muzzey, 238-9; West, Am. Dem., 434-40, 
367-69, 516-19; Elson, 378, 474-5; Thompson, 195. 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(49) 439 


IY. Cultural Development 

Education—Labor and Public Education—Pauper Schools—Private 
Schools—Church Schools—Public Support—Northwest Ordinance 
and Education—Education (In New England; In the South; In the 
West)—Academies and Public High Schools—Higher Education— 
Educational Leaders. 

Literature — Newspapers — Magazines — Pamphlets — Books — The 
Novel—Poetry—Leading Writers. 


Churches and Religious Reforms 

Other Social Reforms—Imprisonment of Debtors—Labor Conditions 
—Enfranchisement—Penal Reforms—Hospitals—Care of Defectives 
—Prohibition—“Women’s Rights”—Abolition Movement. 


Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Outline the arguments against universal publicly supported edu¬ 
cation. Show the fallacies in the arguments. 

2. Why should the public support “higher education”? 

3. How do newspapers and books aid in establishing and maintain¬ 
ing individual and political liberty? 

4. Why should the public support asylums for the insane ? Schools 
for defectives? 

5. What are the ideas back of the penal reforms? 

6. How do literature and music contribute to “the fullness of life”? 

7. Why was it so long before women were admitted to full citizen¬ 
ship and suffrage? 

8. Should the churches be a topic for study in a course in history? 
Why? 


References: 

Hart, 425-30, 433, 312-14; West, 466-75, 363-68, 454-60; Beard, 554- 
63; James and Sanford, 356-59, 303-05; McLaughlin, 393-97, 370-75; 
Muzzey, 200; West, Am. Dem., 348-52, 444-45, 449; Elson, 619-21; 
Thompson, 186-89, 225; Forman, 336-40, 419-21; Forman, Our Rep., 
308-11, 312, 423-26. 


440 (50) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


SECESSION AND CIVIL WAR 

Another of the long shadows of history projected from colonial times 
was the Doctrine of States' Rights. This is shown in such events as 
the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, South Carolina’s Nullifica¬ 
tion of the Tariff, and similar events. How did the problem of 
States’ Rights together with the problem of slavery occasion the 
attempt to destroy the Union? 

Outline of Problem: 

Preliminary Stages—Lincoln’s Election—Secession and Formation of 
The Confederacy—Buchanan’s Attitude—Attempts at Compromise— 
South Carolina’s Argument for Secession and Lincoln’s Reply—Lin¬ 
coln’s Cabinet—Fall of Fort Sumter—Call for Troops—“Second 
Secession”—“Poor Whites”—Resources of North and South. 

Conduct of the War—Financing the War—Blockade—Border States 
—Foreign Relations — Raising and Maintaining Armies — Politics 
During War—War Time Industry—Military Leaders—Military Ob¬ 
jectives of Each Side—Restraining of Civil Liberty—Campaigns in 
East—Campaigns in West—Decisive Battles—Emancipation Procla¬ 
mation—Why the South Lost. 

Results of the War—States’ Rights—Slavery—National Banks—In¬ 
dustry—Immigration—Internal Improvements—Thirteenth and Four¬ 
teenth Amendments — Poverty in South — Destruction of Planter 
Aristocracy—Human Cost of War—Financial Cost—Triumph of 
Democratic Government. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Present facts showing that slavery was the underlying cause of 
the war. 

2. What connection was there between the southern attitude on 
slavery and the states’ rights doctrine? 

3. How do you account for Buchanan’s position at the beginning? 

4. Outline the chief arguments for the first secession and Lincoln’s 
reply. 

5. Why did attempts at compromise fail? 

6. How did Lincoln’s inaugural help to unify and cement the North? 
State Lincoln’s views on the slavery question, secession, and the 
Union. 

7. Do you think Lincoln made a wise choice of cabinet ? Why ? 

8. Why did Lincoln hesitate to take any decisive action up to the 
time of the attempt to supply Fort Sumter? 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(51) 441 


9. Why did Lincoln call for so small a number of troops in his first 
call? 

10. What event occasioned the “Second Secession”? 

11. What slave states and parts of slave states remained within the 
Union ? 

12. Why did the “Poor Whites” support the Confederacy? 

13. Make a tabular outline opposing the assets of the North and the 
South which will aid in the conflict. 

14. What geographic factors favored and what hindered the South 

in the war? • 

15. What geographic factors favored and what hindered the North 
in the war? 

16. Account for the Draft Riots. 

17. Account for the fact that the aristocratic classes in England 
favored the Confederacy while the common people were for the 
Union. 

18. Why did the North desire to open the Mississippi? 

19. Explain the importance of the victory of the Monitor over the 
Merrimac. 

20. Show how the victories of Vicksburg and Gettysburg were turn¬ 
ing points in the war in European attitude as well as in the mili¬ 
tary phase of the war in the United States. 

21. How did industrial organization aid in the North in winning the 
war ? 

22. Why did Lincoln issue the Emancipation Proclamation? 

23. Was the president justified in suspending the Writ of Habeas 
Corpus to the extent to which he did ? 

24. Explain Ross’s statement, “The blood of the Nation was lastingly 
impoverished by that awful hemorrhage”. (James and Sanford, 
page 413.) 

References: 

James and Sanford, 368-414; Hart, 401-419, 435-483; Forman, 423- 

475; Muzzey, 320-380, 390-391; West, 541-580; McLaughlin, 385-432; 

Beard, 344-370; Bassett, 511-593; Elson, 624-785; Thompson, 305-336; 

West, Am. Dem., 526-554; Forman, Our Rep., 427-505. 


442 (52) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


RECONSTRUCTION 

Problem: 

“The Civil War grew out of a misunderstanding between honest and 

sincere men. So did the Reconstruction.The whole nation was 

groping around a problem whose real lineaments it did not know, 
like a blind man making his way about in an unfamiliar room. Re¬ 
construction was an attempt to settle nearly all the great issues of 
American development, whose factors had been so altered by the war 
as to produce in each new features so radically different from the 
old as to change the problem itself beyond recognition. Indeed, we 
are dealing with the construction of a new nation, not with the re¬ 
construction, preservation, alteration, or restoration of the status 
quo before the war?’* 

Outline of Problem: 

Economic Conditions in the South—The Social Conditions in the 
South—Political Conditions in the South—Status of the Negro—The 
Freedman’s Bureau—Lincoln’s Plan—Johnson’s Plan—The Congres¬ 
sional Plan—Black Codes and Civil Rights Bill—Fourteenth Amend¬ 
ment — Reconstruction Act of 1867 — Fifteenth Amendment — The 
President and the Congress—“Carpet Bag” Governments—Ku Klux 
Klan and Force Bills. 


Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Compare the North and South at the close of the war as to in¬ 
dustry, agriculture, commerce, finances, governments. 

2. Was Johnson a man well fitted by temperament, character and 
training for president at a time like this ? 

3. What mistakes did the northern radicals make about the 
Negroes ? 

4. How did the South justify the “Black Codes” ? 

5. . What led to the adoption of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth 

Amendments ? 

6. Outline the events that led to the Reconstruction Act of 1867. 

7. Why do historians speak of the “Crime of Reconstruction”? 

8. Can you justify the Ku Klux, White Camelia, and similar organi¬ 
zations ? 

9. By what schemes did the South overthrow the “Carpet Bag 
Rule”? 


* Usher—The Rise of the American People. 




AMERICAN HISTORY 


(53) 443 


10. Give specific instances showing the outrages of the “Carpet Bag 
Rule”. 

11. Show how the courage and character of the southerner were ex¬ 
emplified in his facing the problems of reconstruction. 

12. What were the motives behind the Congressional Policy of Re¬ 
construction? (James and Sanford, page 423.) 

13. How did the Loyal Leagues complicate the problem of recon¬ 
struction ? 

14. How did the “Carpet Bag” governments impoverish the southern 
state governments? 

15. Who were the radical leaders of the North? 

References: 

West, 581-599; Muzzey, 381-389; Forman, 476-489; Beard, 370-389; 

James and Sanford, 415-436; Hart, 484-502; McLaughlin, 433-458; 

Bassett, 594-639; Elson, 786-818; Thompson, 339-346; West, Am. 

Dem., 555-563; Forman, Our Rep., 506-533. 


DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST 
(Since the Civil War) 

Problem: 

“When the Civil War broke out, the United States was still in many 
ways a land of simple conditions. It had lost much of the appear¬ 
ance of the frontier, to be sure; even in the Mississippi valley there 
were factories as well as farms; but the great natural resources of 
the land—the oil, the coal, the iron, the lumber—had been scarcely 
more than touched. Large sections were still without railroads. 
Beyond the line of Missouri and Iowa, there were a few people; 
Kansas came in as a state in 1861; the hardy Mormons had pushed 
on into Utah and were turning the Salt Lake Valley into a garden; 
but there were still hundreds of miles of uninhabited prairie where 
the buffalo roamed in countless numbers. The words ‘Great Ameri¬ 
can Desert’ were printed in large letters on the map, covering a wide 
area of the west, where today are farms and villages. The great 
mineral wealth of the mountains was scarcely dreamed of.”* This 
vast domain, rich in undeveloped resources, was settled by an in¬ 
domitable people bent upon conquering it. What was the result? 

Outline of Problem: 

Stimuli to Westward Migration—Homestead Act of 1862—Immigra- 


* McLaughlin—History of the American Nation, page 474. 



444 (54) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


tion Law of 1864—Removal of Indians—Indian Treatment—Dawes 
Bill—Transcontinental Railways—Development of Irrigation—Nat¬ 
ural Resources—Free Land and Labor—Labor Saving Farm Machin¬ 
ery—Federal Soldiery—Foreign Immigration. 

Industries — Railroad Development—Agriculture—Mining—Lumber¬ 
ing—Fishing—Cattle Business—Grain Supplants Cotton—Pacific 
Shipping—Manufacturing in Great Lakes Region. 

Results—Rapid Growth of “Big Business”—Industry in Middle West 
—Disappearance of American Desert—Social Conditions of Middle 
West—Democracy of New West—Spirit of Self-government—Effect 
on Eastern Agriculture—Economic Independence of Europe—Facing 
the Pacific—New States Added—Conservation Problems. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Trace on a map the transcontinental railways. 

2. Discuss the part the railroads have had in the development of 
what was called the West at the close of the Civil War. 

3. What were the first four lines to reach the Pacific coast? (See 
map, page 478, in McLaughlin.) 

4. Give an account of the methods of James J. Hill to attract set¬ 
tlers to the West. (Beard, 427-431.) 

5. Note the statement that the West of this period was settled 
largely by veterans of the Civil War. Give reasons for this. 

6. Note the statement in Forman, page 490, relative to the encour¬ 
agement given to immigrants to settle in the West. Do you 
think the conditions existing at that time justified this policy? 

7. Can you bring to the class any evidence showing that Nebraska 
was settled largely by former Union soldiers and by immigrants 
from Europe ? 

8. To what extent is the semi-arid West still a grazing country? 

9. In what portions of the West has irrigation been developed on a 
large scale ? Do you look for a large increase in irrigated areas ? 
If so, why? 

10. What was the effect of western settlement on national life? 

11. Where is the corn belt? The wheat belt? 

12. Why are Omaha, Kansas City, St. Louis, great centers of the 
packing industry? 

13. Why has Minneapolis become a great flour manufacturing city? 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(55) 445 


14. Why has Chicago become a great railway center? 

15. What stimulated the settlement of Colorado, Wyoming, Nebraska, 
the Dakotas? 

16. How did the transcontinental railroads stimulate settlement? 

17. Why was Utah kept out of the Union for so long? 

18. Why did the new territories want to be admitted as states ? 

19. “The building up of large fortunes on the basis of natural re¬ 
sources is an important characteristic of the period.” (McLaugh¬ 
lin, 483.) Explain. 

20. Why did Congress so liberally aid the construction of the first 

/ 

transcontinental railway? 

21. In 1860, how many days travel from San Francisco to Washing¬ 
ton? How many now? 

22. How do the transcontinental railways help to make the United 
States a nation? 

23. What geographic factors determined the location of the railway 
systems ? 

References: 

Forman, 490-493, 510-512, 530-533; Beard, 425-450; Hart, 505-510, 
577-597; McLaughlin, 474-482; West, 602-606; Muzzey, 471-472; Bas¬ 
sett, 676-692; Thompson, 346-347; Forman, Our Rep., 536-542. 


ECONOMIC FACTORS IN OUR HISTORY 


(Since the Civil War) 


Problem: 

What economic progress has the United States made since the Civil 
War and what problems have grown out of this progress? 


Outline of Problem: 

I. The Money Question 

Civil War Debt—Refunding Operations—The United States Notes— 
Panic of 1873—Resumption of Specie Payment—Greenback Party— 
Demonetization of Silver—Free Silver Movement—Bland-Allison 
Act, 1878—Populist Party—Sherman Act of 1890 and Bond Sales— 
Panic of 1893—Decrease of Gold Reserve—Free Silver Campaign of 
1896—Gold Standard—Money Values and the Debtor and Creditor 
Class—Federal Reserve Bank—Farm Loan Act. 


446 (56) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. What plans were made to pay the Civil War debt? 

2. What is meant by specie payment? Why was resumption so 
long delayed? 

3. What metals are used for money in America ? How much is the 
metal in a silver dollar worth today? 

4. Do you favor the free and unlimited coinage of silver? Why? 

5. If you were to decide the ratio for the free coinage of silver, 
what would you make it? Would this ratio vary? Why? 

6. Outline the arguments in favor of a “single standard”. Should 
this standard be gold? Why? 

7. How does “cheap money” affect prices ? What class profits 
most? 

8. What gave rise to the Greenback party ? The Populist party ? 

9. Outline the arguments in favor of the Federal Reserve Bank. 
Where are Federal Banks located? 

10. Account for the financial crisis of 1873. (See James and San¬ 
ford, page 444. Other references also are helpful.) Do the same 
reasons apply to later panics ? 

11. Outline the financial history of the country since the Civil War. 

References: 

Thompson, 453-68; Bassett, 666-69, 831, 697-700, 746-63; Forman, 
493-95, 497-98, 538-39, 506, 542-45, 554; Hart, 480-81, 496-98, 521-22, 
534; West, 648-49, 624-30; Beard, 464-72, 458; James and Sanford, 
478-484, 442-45; McLaughlin, 454, 462, 504-05, 510-12; Muzzey, 399, 
406, 407, 437, 446-49, 488, 489; Elson, 831-33, 880, 869, 844, 885-89; 
West, Am. Dem., 603-09, 680; Forman, Our Rep., 544, 648-51, 570, 
629-30, 645, 662-73, 759-60, 773. 

II. Tariff Problems 

Civil War Debt—“American System”—Treasury Surplus—Tariff 
Commission of 1893—Cleveland's Message—Election of 1888—Mc¬ 
Kinley Tariff of 1890—Reciprocity Treaties—.Wilson Bill—Dingley 
Law—Income Tax Amendment—Income Tax Law—Inheritance Tax 
—Payne-Aldrich Tariff—Underwood Tariff Law. 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(57) 447 


Suggestive Related Problems: 

!• Do you believe in a protective tariff or a “tariff for revenue 
only’'? Why? What is, or has been, the tendency of the tariff 
laws since the Civil War? 

2. Should the government maintain a surplus in the United States 
Treasury ? 

3. Is the income tax a just tax ? The inheritance tax ? 

4. Would you favor reciprocity tariff treaties with other countries? 
Why? 

References: 

i 

Hart, 524, 529-31, 566, 614, 624, 531, 625; West, 616-17, 619-22, 694- 
95, 699; Beard, 459, 422, 472, 528, 529, 588; James and Sanford, 
467-70, 493, 494; McLaughlin, 500, 507, 508, 514, 533, 467, 471, 496, 
550; Muzzey, 420-21, 432, 481, 487, 440, 426; Thompson, 402-08; Bas¬ 
sett, 663, 712-15, 838; Forman, 468-69, 509 (note), 529-30, 533, 534, 
541, 546-47, 581, 588-89, 598; Forman, Our Rep., 574, 631-32, 658-62, 
674-77, 609, 613, 659, 661, 741, 747, 757, 758; Elson, 785, 856, 867, 881; 
West, Am. Dem., 595-602. 

III. Trust Problems 

Industrial Revolution—Increased Use of Machinery—Corporations 
and Large Scale Production—Banking Corporation—Economic and 
Social Significance of the Corporation—Corporations and Labor— 
“Watered Stock”—Government Aid to Railways—Railway Capital— 
Railway Abuses—Grangers—State Regulation Attempted—Interstate 
Commerce Act, 1877—Sherman Anti-Trust Law and Its Operations— 
Roosevelt and the Trusts—Clayton Anti-Trust Act. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. What is meant by the term “The Industrial Revolution”? Ex¬ 
plain in brief how it has affected economic life. 

2. Is the extended use of machinery a social good? 

3. Show how developments of applied science and invention made 
possible the amazing development of the natural resources of 
the country. 

4. Why are great corporations essential to extensive development 
of industry? 

5. Was the government justified in making such extensive land 
grants to the railroads? Were any made in your county? 


448 (58) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


6. What abuses crept into railroad management and what steps 
were taken to meet these abuses? (See West, page 648, and 
other references.) 

7. Should “watering stock” be a criminal offence? Why? 

8. Why has anti-trust legislation not been very successful? 

9. Discuss the financial aspect of the development of one great rail¬ 
way system. (See Beard, page 401, and other references.) 

10. How does industry affect the social life of a country ? 

References: 

Hart, 511-14, 541-48, 601; West, 646-62, 699, 700; Beard, 401-10, 460- 
63, 472-75, 520-21, 530, 526; James and Sanford, 472-73, 516-18; Mc¬ 
Laughlin, 487-89, 531-32, 541-42; Muzzey, 424, 422, 469-490; West, 
Am. Dem., 625-40; Thompson, 396-402; Bassett, 733-41; Forman, 
490-94, 496, 510, 526-27, 557-8, 580, 583, 584; Forman, Our Rep., 592- 
98, 602, 632-35, 701-05, 748-49, 760-62. 

IY. Labor Problems 

Disappearance of Free Land—Rise of Labor Unions—Collective Bar¬ 
gaining—Strikes and Strike Arbitration—Child Labor—Women in 
Industry—Closed Shop—Labor Gains and Public Welfare—Company 
Unions—American Federation of Labor—Profit Sharing—Labor 
Manager—Labor and Public Opinion—Labor Legislation—Socialism— 
Radicalism—“Single Taxers”—Clayton Anti-Trust Law—Seaman’s 
Act—Adamson Law—Workmen’s Compensation—Court Government 
by Injunction—Minimum Wage—Child Labor Law—Immigration and 
Labor—Restriction of Immigration. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. How does industry affect the social life of a country? 

2. Is the strike a legitimate means of enforcing labor demands? 

3. How did the organization of corporations necessitate “collective 
bargaining” ? 

4. How does free land affect the labor problem? 

5. Should there be an “eight hour day”? Why? 

6. What should be the age at which children should be admitted to 
factories ? 

7. Should mothers have pensions? Why, or why not? 

8. Should labor share in the profits of a corporation? 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(59) 449 


9. Should there be a minimum wage law? Why? 

10. Should all industries be included in a workmen’s compensation 
law? 

11. Compare the function of a labor leader with that of a captain of 
industry. 

12. What were the main planks in the Socialist platform in the last 
presidential election? Wherein do you disagree with it? Is any 
part of it practical? 

13. What are the causes of the social unrest of today? 

14. What restrictions should be placed on immigration? What are 
the restrictions at the present time? 

References: 

Beard, 570-82; Hart, 504-06, 515, 549-52, 584-85; West, 667-82; James 
and Sanford, 451-55; McLaughlin, 489-92; West, Am. Dem., 646-663; 
Elson, 845-46, 884, 905; Thompson, 377-82; Bassett, 741-44; Forman, 
536, 495, 519-20, 558-60, 528, 540, 566; Forman, Our Rep., 545, 599, 
600-02, 606-08, 732, 754, 775. 

V. General Economic and Social Problems* 

Rise of the South—Wide Use of Machinery—Public Service Corpora¬ 
tions—Corporations and Labor—Public Regulation of Trusts—“Big 
Business and Corrupt Government”—The Business Theory of Gov¬ 
ernment—Concentration of Industrial Population—The Growth of 
Cities—Taxation of Great Fortunes—Immigration and Labor—Immi¬ 
gration and Americanization—Restriction of Immigration—Types of 
Recent Immigrants—Mothers’ Pensions—Rent Laws—People versus 
Privilege—Social Unrest—Great Labor Leaders—Captains of Indus¬ 
try—Conservation of National Resources—Educational Opportunities. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Should privately owned public service corporations be regulated 
by law? Why? 

2. Is a maximum rent law just? Explain your answer. 

3. Is “Big Business” more likely to corrupt the government than 
small business? 

4. What is meant by “People versus Privilege”? 

5. What restrictions should be placed on immigration? What re¬ 
strictions are now placed on immigration? 


* Optional. 




450 (60) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


6. Outline the financial history of the country since the Civil War. 

7. What do you consider the causes of the financial panics in this 
country in the last forty years ? Have any of these causes been 
eliminated ? 

8. What is the purpose of the Farm Loan Banks? Are there any 
in Nebraska? Your county? Your city? 

References: 

Forman, 493-498, 506, 509-515, 519-520, 524-530, 533-547, 557-560, 
573-579, 588-591, 594-595; West, 600-601, 606-611, 619-630, 646-662, 
667-682; Hart, 511-518, 528-536, 541-554, 582-586; Beard, 389-412, 
451-476, 519-530, 546-553, 570-587, 588-591; Muzzey, 398-400, 402-404, 
405-408, 420-433, 437-443, 445-449, 464-465, 469-471, 480-481, 488- 
491; McLaughlin, 461-463, 467-468, 471, 483-492, 495-496, 500-501, 
505-513, 514, 533-545, 555-558; James and Sanford, 439-445, 451-459, 
466-473, 477-485, 490-496, 516-521, 527-34, 539-42; Bassett, 660-669, 
676-683, 697-701, 712-715, 721, 725, 727-730, 746-750, 753-763, 820- 
833, 837-839, 841, 850; Elson, 828-833, 843-847. 

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS 

Problem: 

“Perhaps the largest contribution that America has made to the 
world is the proof, for the first time in history, that popular govern¬ 
ment is possible for a nation of great extent, with a large popula¬ 
tion.In practice, popular government has had to contend with 

many difficulties.”* 

By what means has popular government been kept in possession of 
its rightful authority? 

Outline of Problem: 

National Political Administration—Corruption Following War— 
Grant’s Administration—Whiskey Ring—“Credit Mobilier”—“Salary 
Grab”—Hayes-Tilden Election—Garfield, the “Stalwarts and Half- 
Breeds” and the Civil Service Reform—Cleveland and Blaine— 
Cleveland and the Tariff—-Cleveland’s Administration and Labor 
Troubles—Harrison and the “Spoils System”—Populists—Socialists— 
“Single Taxers”—Campaign of 1896—McKinley's Administration— 
Roosevelt Policies—Taft’s Return to Conservatism—“Insurgents” 
and “Standpatters”—Parcels Post—Postal Savings Bank—Nomina¬ 
tions and Elections of 1912—Federal Legislation and Domestic Re¬ 
forms of Wilson’s Administration. 


* Hart—New American History, pages 643, 644. 






AMERICAN HISTORY 


(61) 451 


General Political Achievements and Problems—Australian Ballot— 
Initiative and Referendum—Direct Primary—Recall—“Recall of Ju¬ 
dicial Decisions”—-Direct Election of United States Senators—Pub¬ 
licity of Campaign Funds—Universal Suffrage—Political Corruption 
—Control of “Big Business”—Municipal Utilities—Public Utilities— 
City Government—Short Ballot. 

Women and Political Development—Women in Public Life—Woman’s 
Rights Movement—Women in Industry—Women and Education— 
Women and Reforms—Women’s Clubs Movements—Woman Suf¬ 
frage. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Why are the corrupt political conditions attributed to the ab¬ 
normal conditions following the war? 

2. What types of political institutions should be under civil service? 

3. Show how the assassination of President Garfield was connected 
with the civil service reform law of 1883, known as the Pendleton 
Act. 

4. Explain this law and trace the history of the civil service from 
the standpoint of the merit system down to the present. 

5. Explain how great business concerns, especially public service 
corporations, corrupted the government. 

6. What is your reaction to the Hayes-Tilden controversy? 

7. How do the “Stalwarts and Half-breeds” compare with the “In¬ 
surgents and Standpatters”? 

8. What were the “Roosevelt Policies”? 

9. What was the significance of the “Haymarket Riot”? 

10. Outline the significant Federal legislation and domestic reforms 
from 1870 to 1912. 

' 11. Would you have been a Free Silver Democrat in 1896? 

12. Why was the Australian ballot a great reform ? 

13. What form of city government do you favor, and why? 

14. Note the quotations from Roosevelt and Taft on page 546 in 
Beard. 

15. What dangers are connected with the development of increased 
governmental control in industry? Name and discuss important 
steps already taken in this direction and state what has been 
accomplished. 



452 (62) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


16. What advantages has the “Short Ballot”? 

17. How does publicity of campaign funds keep down corruption? 

18. What democratic achievements in politics were accomplished be¬ 
tween 1870 and 1900? 

19. What changes in our political structure were made in this period? 
Trace the history of the more important ones. Explain the value 
of each. 

20. How do women’s clubs encourage democracy? 

21. Trace the growth toward universal suffrage. (Beard, Chapter 
XXIII.) 

22. What great reforms have been initiated by women ? 

23. Who are the leading women in American history and what sig¬ 
nificance attaches to each ? 

References: 

Beard, 530-545, 554-569; Muzzey, 393-394, 398-401, 405, 408-420, 431, 
435-437, 446-450, 465-469, 482-486; James and Sanford, 445-449, 460- 
465, 477-479, 507-510, 521-522, 524, 533-539; Forman, 500-503, 507- 
509, 521-522, 537, 542-545, 555-557, 565-573, 579-580, 582-583, 585-588; 
Hart, 519-520, 522-523, 525-527, 598-601, 614-616, 619-623, 637-646; 
McLaughlin, 450-460, 463-473, 493-495, 497-498, 501-504, 511-513, 531- 
532, 547-555; West, 593-601, 612-616, 618, 679-702; West, Am. Dem., 
567-571, 591-602, 606-607, 660-663, 663-670, 676-682; Forman, Our 
Rep., 551-561, 562-567, 568-575, 588-609, 731-749, 772-774. 


FOREIGN AFFAIRS 

Problem: 

What events made the United States a significant world power be¬ 
tween the close of the Civil War and the World War? 

Outline of Problem: 

From Civil War to Spanish-American War—Monroe Doctrine— 

French in Mexico—Purchase of Alaska—Atlantic Cable—Seward’s 
Caribbean Policy—Grant and Santo Domingo—Alabama Claims, and 
The Geneva Arbitration—United States in Pacific on Samoa—Blaine’s 
Diplomacy (Pan-American Congress; Samoan Difficulty with Ger¬ 
many; Bering Sea; Quarrel with Italy; Trouble with Chile)—Cleve¬ 
land and Hawaii—The Venezuelan Boundary Dispute—Annexation 
of Hawaii. 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(63) 453 


Problems Involving Spanish-American War—Spanish Colonial Policy 
—Cuban Revolutions—Cleveland’s Policy—McKinley’s Negotiations 
—The Maine Disaster—The War—The Attitude of England, France 
and Germany—Peace Negotiations and the Treaty—Issue of “Im¬ 
perialism”—Philippine Problem. 

Other Foreign Relations Problems—Boxer Trouble in China—Hay’s 
Open Door Policy—Problems of Colonial Administration—The Cuban 
Problem—American Protectorates. 

Roosevelt and the Foreign Affairs—Panama Canal—Russo-Japanese 
Peace Treaty—Germany and the Venezuelan Blockade—Santo Do¬ 
mingo Affair—The Fleet Around the World—Problem of Colonial 
Administration. 

Wilson’s Mexican Policy. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Relate briefly essential facts relative to the trouble with France 
over Mexico at the close of the Civil War and tell also of the 
purchase of Alaska. (See Hart, 492.) 

2. Explain Blaine’s Pan-American policy and comment on its value. 

3. Explain the Venezuelan matter in Cleveland’s second administra¬ 
tion. Why do you think Cleveland was right in his stand on the 
question ? 

4. Do you think we did right in keeping the Philippines? If so, 
give reasons. 

5. Give an account of what America has done for the Philippines. 

6. Explain the American policy of the “open door”. 

7. What is the “New Monroe Doctrine”? 

8. Why did the United States take such drastic steps to expel the 
French from Mexico ? 

9. What has it profited the United States to own Alaska ? 

10. Why should the United States have a naval base in the Car¬ 
ibbean? 

11. How many naval bases should the United States have in the 
Pacific and where should they be ? 

12. Outline the American method of governing colonies. 

13. What significant diplomatic problems of the United States have 
been settled by arbitration ? 


454 (64) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


14. What diplomatic problems since 1870 have brought us to the 
verge of war with some foreign nation ? 

15. What do you consider the greatest diplomatic achievements of 
America ? 

16. What great commercial significance has the Panama Canal? 

17. Who were America’s greatest diplomats following the Civil War 
and what did each accomplish ? 


References: 

West, 631-645, 702; McLaughlin, 498-500, 507-510, 515-531, 558-563; 
Hart, 492, 494, 524-525, 529-530, 559-576, 602-605, 607-610, 626-627; 
Forman, 486, 541-542, 547-553, 560-562; James and Sanford, 470-471, 
485-488, 497-506, 510-516, 544-545; Muzzey, 433-435, 443-445, 451-464, 
472-476, 493-495; Beard, 477-519; Bassett, 669-674, 764-827; West, 
Am. Dem., 565-566, 610-618, 620-624, 682-683; Forman, Our Rep., 
617-621, 677-690, 708-714, 766-767. 

AMERICA IN THE WORLD WAR AND AFTER 

Problem: 

A critical period in world’s history came in 1914 when autocracy 
made war on democracy. What did the United States do? 

Outline of Problem: 

Before America’s Participation — German “Kultur” — Germany’s 
Dream of World Dominion—Germany’s Preparation—The Excuse for 
War—Violation of Belgian Neutrality—Alignment of the Allies— 
“Schrecklichkeit”—German Propaganda—The Submarine Policy— 
German Treacheries and Intrigues in America and Mexico—Wilson’s 
Peace Proposals — Lusitania Affair — Attempts at Neutrality — 
America’s Declaration of War. 

Conduct of the War—War Aims—Wilson’s Fourteen Points—Raising 
Armies—Transport Service—Air Service—Hoover and Food Conser¬ 
vation—Control of Transportation—Council of National Defense— 
Schwab and the Emergency Fleet—The Navy—Financing of the War 
—Labor Problems in War Time—Welfare Societies—Women and the 
War—America’s Troops in France—The Armistice—Espionage and 
Sedition Acts—Financial Cost of the War—Human Cost of the War. 

Since the Armistice—Peace Conference—Wilson’s Fourteen Points— 
The Supreme Council—League of Nations— Terms of the Treaty— 
The Senate and the Treaty—The Railroad Situation and the Esch- 
Cummins Law—Industrial Unrest—The “Reds”—The Coal Strike— 



AMERICAN HISTORY 


(65) 455 


The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Amendments—The Campaign of 

1920 Peace with Germany—The Washington Disarmament Confers 
ence—The Fordney-McCumber Tariff—The' World Court Plan- 

Death of President Harding—Problems Facing Coolidge’s Admin¬ 
istration. 

Suggestive Related Problems: 

1. Did Germany have a “reason” or an “excuse” for entering the 
war? 

2. What brought Ehgland into the war? 

3. Give instances of “Schrecklichkeit”. 

4. Why did America remain neutral? 

5. Outline the steps leading to America’s declaration of war with 
Germany. 

6. Show how inadequately prepared for war America was. 

7. Roosevelt said, “We trust in God and the British navy”. Show 
how this was true. 

8. Why was the “Selective Service Act” much better than the volun¬ 
teer system? 

9. Compare the work of the women in the late war with their work 
in previous wars. 

10. State reasons given by President Wilson for our entrance into 
the war. (See Muzzey, page 510.) 

11. The number of troops we raised and trained and our efficiency 
in transporting them to France are marvels of military history. 
Give the essential facts involved in this great undertaking. 

12. Give essential facts in the story of the navy and the air service. 

13. Why was it essential to conserve the food supply and give ac¬ 
count of the conservation of food and increased production? 

14. Why was it necessary to bring the railroads under government 
control and how was it accomplished? 

15. How did America manage to feed Europe during the war? 

16. What were the greatest accomplishments of America during the 
war? 


456 (66) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


17. Why did the Senate reject the Treaty of Versailles? 

18. Why did the United States not enter the League of Nations? 

19. What problems of the war remained for the Harding administra¬ 
tion ? 

20. What led to the introduction and the passing of the Esch-Oum- 
mins Bill? 

21. What was accomplished by the Washington disarmament con¬ 
ference ? 

20. Are you in favor of the World Court? Why? 

GENERAL REVIEWS* 

Review of American Territorial Development (1492-1916) 

Spanish practical monopoly of the Americas for nearly a century 
after the discovery (1492-1603); French, English, Dutch and Swedish be¬ 
ginnings of rivalry for North America (1604-1638); early absorption of 
Swedes by Dutch and of Dutch by English (1655-1664); English occu¬ 
pation of Atlantic coast, French occupation of St. Lawrence, Great Lake 
region, and Mississippi valley (to 1748); French and English rivalry 
over Ohio valley, expulsion of French, division of North America be¬ 
tween Spanish and English, and appearance of Russia in northwestern 
America (1749-1766); American independence, and establishment of na¬ 
tional boundaries (1763-1783); establishment of Spanish, English and 
American claims to Oregon region (1790-1793); French repossession of 
Louisiana, American purchase, and disputed boundaries (1800-1803); 
Spanish-American independence and setting up of republics in Mexico, 
Central America and South America (1810-1826); American “annexa¬ 
tion” of West Florida in 1810-1812, purchase of East Florida and sur¬ 
render of Texas claim (1819); settlement of northeastern boundary dis¬ 
pute (1842); annexation of Texas and settlement of Oregon dispute 
(1845-1846); conquest and purchase of California and New Mexico (1846- 
1848), finishing out by Gadsden purchase of 1853-1854, and agitation for 
acquisition of Canada, lower California, Cuba and Hawaii (1854); pur¬ 
chase of Alaska and failure of attempted annexation of Danish West 
Indies (1867); failure of Grant’s attempts to bring about annexation of 
Santo Domingo (1869-1875); failure of attempted annexation of Hawaii 
(1893-1897); annexation of Hawaii, and conquest-purchase of Philippines, 
Porto Rico, and Guam, independence of Cuba and occupation of Baker, 
Wake and Howland islands (1898-1899); acquisition of Samoa and Sulu 
islands (1899); failure of second attempt to annex Danish West Indies 
(1902); purchase of canal-zone (1903-1904); renewal of movement for 
annexation of Danish West Indies (1916).—Review by use of outlines, 

* From Persinger—Student’s Outline of American History (by permission of the 
publishers. University Publishing Co.). 





AMERICAN HISTORY 


(67) 457 


class notes, and text or reference books (using index, under name of 
different acquisitions). See also Hart, 632-635; McLaughlin, 552-553; 
Fish, 500-502; Haworth, 241. 

Review of the “Westward Movement” in American History 

The “westward movement” from Europe to the Atlantic coast of 
America, and effects of new environment on transplanted European 
people 'and institutions (1607-1650); westward movement from “fail 
line” to foothills of Alleghanies, and over first ridge of Alleghanies into 
“Great Valley” and development of hostility between coast settlers and 
frontiersmen (1650-1768); westward movement over the Alleghanies into 
eastern Tennessee and Kentucky (1769-1774), into central Kentucky and 
Tennessee (1775-1786), and first movement of settlement into the “old 
northwest” (1787-1812); increased movement into northwest and south¬ 
west after war of 1812, and first movement of settlement across Missis¬ 
sippi (into Missouri) ; American westward movement into Spanish and 
Mexican Texas, and continued growth of older northwest and southwest 
(1820-1840); American migration to Oregon, Utah, and California (the 
beginning of the “far west”) and continuation of older westward move¬ 
ment into frontiers from Michigan to Texas (1840-1853); westward move¬ 
ment into eastern Kansas and Nebraska, and into all of older frontiers 
(1854-1870); advance of the frontier into the semi-arid lands and be¬ 
ginning of the “irrigated frontier” (1870-1892); rolling back of frontier 
from semi-arid lands in dry years following 1893, development of the 
irrigated “arid west”, and recovery of semi-arid west under influence of 
“dry-farming” (1893 on); peculiar characteristics of each of the great 
“wests” of American history, and influence of each on older east and on 
general development; practical disappearance of the “west” or the 
“frontier”, and resulting prophecies that American struggles will be 
“class” not sectional.—Review from class notes and text or reference 
books (index under “west” or “frontier”). The map between pages 438 
and 439 of Fish will prove of great help. See also Hart, 635-636; Mc¬ 
Laughlin, 554-555; Fish, 502. 


Review of Immigration Into the English America and the United States 

Almost wholly English immigration of 1607-1680; coming of the first 
German element about 1680-1700; coming of French Huguenots from 
about 1685 to about 1710; new German migration after 1700, and coming 
of the Scotch-Irish from 1730 to 1775; mainly English immigration of 
1790 to about 1830 or 1840, with small amount of Irish; beginning of 
the great Irish migration between 1830 and 1840, and its effects on 
American industry and politics; beginning of new German migration 
after European revolutions of 1830, its great increase after the European 
revolution of 1848, and its effects on American industry, party struggles 


458 (68) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


and slavery controversy (to 1865); cessation of immigration during the 
Civil War, renewal after the war, appearance of Chinese immigration 
in the west, and beginning of anti-immigration agitation by American 
labor interests (1865-1882); appearance of southeastern European immi¬ 
gration after 1880, its tendency to segregate in sections of great cities, 
and beginning of new restrictions on contract-labor immigration, phy¬ 
sically and mentally incapable, and anarchists (1884-1907); growing de¬ 
sire since 1907 for “literacy” test, its acceptance by congress, and its 
veto by presidents (1907-1916); effects of the European war o’f 1914 
on immigration.—See index of text or reference books under “immigra¬ 
tion” and names of the different immigrant races. See also Hart, 636- 
637; McLaughlin, 553-554; Muzzey, 618-622; Fish, 510-516; Haworth, 
241-245. 


Review of American Industrial Development (1492-1914) 

Spanish gold and silver mining (1492-1615); Spanish, French and 
English fur-trading from 1492 and about 1600 on; French and English 
fisheries, and English tobacco, rice and indigo (1615-1780); application of 
steam to machinery, rise of southern cotton culture and northwestern 
development of grain, lead and iron districts (1780-1800); rise of real 
manufacturing industry, of steamboat transportation, and of northwest¬ 
ern coal fields (1800-1830); steam railroad transportation, development of 
great grain areas of west and farther northwest, and of anthracite coal 
fields (1830-1860); beginning of coal-oil, meat-packing and copper indus¬ 
tries and opening of southern mineral resources and factories, and be¬ 
ginnings of “combinations” of small into big businesses (1865-1880); 
rise of steel industry, of irrigated farming region, of electric and gaso¬ 
line power, culmination and beginning of attempted regulation of “big 
business” (1880-1914).—Comparatively little of this material is found in 
either text or reference books; for reviewing on this topic, it will be 
almost necessary to have access to Coman’s “Industrial History” or 
Wright’s “Industrial Evolution”. See also McLaughlin, 554, 535-546; 
Muzzey, 610, 616-618; West, 703-724; Fish, 502-504, 514. 

Review of American Constitutional Development 

Beginning of American development with the “charters” as a sort of 
“written constitution” defining rights of colonists and their relations to 
British government; colonial tendencies towards “written constitutions” 
shown in Mayflower compact, “Fundamental Orders” of Connecticut and 
New Haven, and New England confederation; gradual disappearance or 
charters during later colonial period, and turning of colonists to British 
habit of regarding as “constitutional” anything that was “customary” or 
“according to precedent”; return to “written constitution” in state con¬ 
stitutions of 1776 on, Articles of Confederation of 1777, and Federal Con¬ 
stitution of 1787; struggle between “states-rights” and “nationalism” in 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(69) 459 


making of constitution of 1787, compromise on idea of “sovereignty 
divided” between states and federal government, and protecting of indi¬ 
vidual rights against federal government by first ten amendments (1787- 
1790); slight amendments of new constitution by eleventh and twelfth 
amendments, the eleventh in defense of state-rights (1798-1804); Hamil¬ 
tonian theory of “broad construction” and “implied powers” accepted 
in “nationalistic” decisions of court under influence of Chief Justice 
Marshall (1801-1835); death of Marshall, accession of Taney, and change 
of tendency of supreme court decisions towards states-rights (1835-1857); 
nationalistic amendments and interpretation of constitution during Civil 
War and first days of reconstruction, and reaction towards states-rights 
in last days of reconstruction (1861-1883); refusal of courts at first to 
use fourteenth amendment for protection of corporations, and change 
to use of it for that purpose (1883-1897); “nationalistic” decisions of su¬ 
preme court on questions of “imperialism” and “strict construction” de¬ 
cisions on attempts at regulation of corporation or social reform (1898- 
1910); supreme court assertion of “legislative power” in “reasonable” 
decision of 1911; amendments permitting income tax and direct election 
of senators C1912-1913); tendency of supreme court towards “national¬ 
ism” in decisions on economic and social legislation since 1912; present 
attitude of different political parties towards supreme court and written 
constitution as parts of a system of popular government.—See text and 
reference books (index under “constitution”, “amendments”, and “su¬ 
preme court”). See also Hart, 637-643. 


“Period” Review of American History (1000-1916) 


EUROPEAN HISTORY PERIODS 
Oriental, Greek, Roman, and Ger¬ 
manic periods of European his¬ 
tory .... 

Feudal periods . 

Crusades . 

Renaissance .-. 

Reformation . 

(a) Rise of the Protestant church- 
party in Europe. 


AMERICAN HISTORY PERIODS 
(without known results in or upon 
American history) 

1 Norse discovery, exploration, and 

attempted colonization of North 
America (1000-1012) 

(without known direct results in 
American history) 

2 Spanish discovery, exploration, 

and colonization of the Ameri¬ 
cas (1492-1554) 

3 American development under the 

influence of the European Re¬ 
formation movement (1555-1688) 

(a) French Huguenot attempts to 
colonize in Brazil, South Caro¬ 
lina, and Florida (1555-1565) 








460 


(70) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(b) The Roman Catholic Counter- 
Reformation . 


(c) Temporary ending of religious 
warfare in Europe. 


(d) Revival of English church- 

party struggle under the Stu¬ 
arts and Thirty Years war in 
Europe . 

(e) Puritan supremacy in England 

and beginning of French su¬ 
premacy in Europe. 

(f) The “Restoration” period in 

England . 

French and English struggle for 
world-supremacy . 


The French revolution and wars 
and the Napoleonic empire and 
wars . 


(From 1823 to 19J4, American his¬ 
tory was no longer dominated by 
European movements). 


(b) English Gilbert and Raleigh at¬ 
tempts to colonize in Newfound¬ 
land and North Carolina (1578- 
1591) 

(c) French, English and Dutch com¬ 
mercial colonization in North 
America (1598-1618) 

(d) English religious-political col¬ 
onization of New England and 
Maryland (1619-1639) 


(e) Colonial effects of the Puritan 
supremacy* 

« 

(f) Colonial effects of the Restora¬ 
tion* 

• 

4 French and English struggle for 

supremacy in America, and 
struggle between British “im¬ 
perial control” and colonial 
“self-government” (1689-1763) 

5 American revolution, indepen¬ 

dence, and setting up of a fed¬ 
eral government (1764-1792) 

6 American struggle for “neutral 

rights” and development of an 
“American system” (1793-1823) 


7 Jacksonian Democracy (1824- 

1843) 

8 The struggle over slavery in the 

territories (1844-1860) 

9 Secession and Civil War (1861- 

1865) 


* It seems impossible to give any general heading or title covering all of the actual 
effects of either of these English periods; so, for the present at least, these titles, un¬ 
satisfactory as they are, are retained. 











AMERICAN HISTORY 


(71) 461 


10 Reconstruction and financial re¬ 

adjustment (1866-1879) 

11 Civil service, tariff and “anti- 

monopoly” (1880-1897) 

12 The rise and regulation of “big 

business” (1898-1916) 

The war against Germany (1914- 13 American participation in the 

1918) .. wai- against Germany, 


SHORT LIST 

SELECTED REFERENCES 

High School Texts 

Adams and Trent—American History 

Ashley—American History 

Beard—History of the United States 

Channing—Student’s History 

Fite—History of the United States 

Forman—Advanced American History 

Hart—New American History 

James and Sanford—American History 

McLaughlin—History of the American People 

Muzzey—An American History 

Thompson—History of the United States 

West—History of the American People 

West—American History and Government 


Allyn & Bacon 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Holt 

Century 

A. B. C. 

Scribners 

Appleton 

Ginn 

Sanborn 

Allyn & Bacon 

Allyn & Bacon 


Larger Short Histories 

Bassett—Short History of the United States 
Elson—History of the United States 
Epochs of American History (3 vols.) 

Thwaites—The Colonies 
Hart—Formation of the Union 
Wilson—Division and Reunion 
A Short History of the American People (2 vols.) 

Greene—The Foundations of American Nationality 
Fish—The Development of American Nationality 
Sparks—The United States of America (2 vols.) 
Forman—Our Republic 
West—American Democracy 


Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Longmans 


A. B. C. 


Putnams 
Century 
Allyn & Bacon 



462 (72) 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


Sources 

Caldwell & Persinger—Source History of the U. S. 
Hart—American History Told by Contemporaries 
McDonald—Documentary Source Book of American 
History 

Economic and Industrial 


Ainsworth 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 


Brogart—Economic History of the United States Macmillan 

Carlton—History and Problems of Organized Labor D. C. Heath 

Coman—Industrial History of the United States Macmillan 


Geographic Factors 

Brigham—Geographic Influences in American History Ginn 
Semple—^American History and Its Geographic Conditions 

Houghton Mifflin 


Philosophy and Interpretation 

Mace—'Method in History 

Usher—The Rise of the American People 


Rand McNally 
Century 


The Teaching of History 


Mace—Method in History 
Johnson—Teaching of History 

Tryon—The Teaching of History in the Junior and 
Senior High Schools 

Wayland—How to Teach American History 

Langlois & Seignobos—Introduction to the Study of History 

Fling—Outline of Historical Method 


Rand McNally 
Macmillan 

Ginn 

Macmillan 

Holt 

Lincoln 





o 


A SURVEY OF 
WORLD HISTORY 

PROF. LAURA B. PFEIFFER 
University of Nebraska 

y ■■ 




464 (5) 


WORLD HISTORY 


A Survey of World History 

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

The World War turned all eyes toward Europe and the abysmal 
ignorance of conditions leading to that war lent impetus to the study 
of such history of the world as has affected the development of our 
civilization. 

This course is an attempt to outline those salient features of the 
world’s history which seem to have significance today—the growth of 
democracy, the decline of autocracy, the growth of world unity (organ¬ 
ization), the influence of modern business enterprise, the recent achieve¬ 
ments in science, are events of profound significance. Western civiliza¬ 
tion is a complex unity, the disturbance of which profoundly affects 
all modern peoples. 

In the study of the history lesson this course is to serve as the 
method of approach to the problem or problems involved. The brief 
introduction under each topic is designed to serve as a sort of over¬ 
view, a device to give the pupil a perspective of the subject-matter to be 
studied. The outline is designed to serve as a graphic picture of the 
proper evaluation and subordination of the various phases of the topic. 
The questions aim to test rigorously the pupil’s ability to use the 
knowledge gained in reading the introduction, visualizing the outline 
and reading the references. 

The ideal arrangement in the use of text books is to have about 
one-third of the class supplied with one text book, another third with a 
second book and the rest with yet a third book. In this way members 
of the class get the points of view of different authors and this course 
together with the teacher serve as the means of reducing these sep¬ 
arate accounts to a common denominator of material and a common 
point of view. Some teachers, however, desire a common text book. This 
is no violation of sound pedagogy but then the common text book sup¬ 
plies the common denominator whereas the outline and the teacher, rather 
than the text book, should serve to coordinate. 

No suggestions have been made with regard to the use of source 
material. This is left entirely to the teacher. It is hoped, however, that 
the teacher will not neglect the opportunity to show pupils “how his¬ 
tory is made” and to illumine the various events and movements in his¬ 
tory by reference to contemporary writers. Nothing can make history 
so real as the accounts of eye witnesses. 

Library reading should be extensively but judiciously prescribed. 
Library references should not be assigned for the purpose of securing 


4 


WORLD HISTORY 


(6) 465 


additional knowledge but for the purpose of clarifying the account given 
in the text prescribed. The usual text gives a very concise and usually 
uninteresting account of historical events. This text account needs to 
be amplified by reference to material containing greater detail. 

With regard to the use of maps it can be said that no person can 
teach history without good maps and constant and detailed reference 
thereto. There are many sets of cheap editions of so-called historical 
maps on the market. These cannot suffice for the careful teacher. The 
best maps are the cheapest. The list of maps suggested here are de¬ 
signed by well-known scholars, and are thoroughly reliable and well 
adapted to this course. 

“Reports” in history are too many times dead, useless and stulti¬ 
fying things. The encyclopedic account accepted by many teachers as a 
“report” is not only an inane waste of time but a vicious violation of 
the principles of interest. Reports should illumine, interest and amplify 
with detail and not add more dead weight of information. 

And finally let us say that the idea that history is easier to teach 
than mathematics or language or that it requires less “brains” on the 
part of the pupils to learn it, is the most glaring error that superin¬ 
tendents and teachers can make. The definite tracing of significant 
events, a reasoned unraveling of a complex historical situation, a sane 
use of historical judgment requires more “hard” thinking than any of 
the formal courses. History is not a “snap” course but should be and 
is, if properly taught, perhaps the most rigorous course in the high 
school curriculum. 

The editor did but little in the construction of the course—the 
order of topics, the arrangement of outline, the point of view—to the 
close of the French Revolution or with the Reaction and Revolution from 
1815 to 1850. On the rest of the course he has laid a heavy hand, add¬ 
ing some material, eliminating some, changing points of view in places, 
putting in three entirely new outlines, viz: Development of Great Eur¬ 
opean States—Italy, Austria-Hungary, Russia; The Industrial Revolu¬ 
tion; and The World Today. Combination and condensation of other 
topics made this possible. The editor regrets he had no opportunity 
to consult the author in making the changes noted above and assumes 
full responsibility for all distortions occasioned by editing. 

The lists of books and maps are the editor’s selection. He has 
tried to keep in mind the average teacher, the average pupil and the 
average school in all selections. 


A. L. B. 


466 (7) 


WORLD HISTORY 


FIRST HALF YEAR 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 
V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 
XV. 

XVI. 


Introduction. 

The First Three Thousand Years of the World’s History—The 
Oriental Empires 

Greeks and The Empire of Alexander 
The Roman Empire—A World-State 

The Breakup of the Roman Empire—German Migrations—Ger¬ 
man Kingdoms and German-Roman Empires 

Mohammedanism and the Arab Kingdoms 

The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire—The Crusades 

The Rise of National States: England, France and the Hundred 
Years War, Spain 

The Renaissance—The Universities—The Rise of Cities—The Mid¬ 
dle Class—Industry and Commerce 

The Discovery of the New World and the Expansion of Europe 
The Spanish Empire and Dutch Republic 
The Ottoman Empire 

The Reformation and the Thirty Years War 

The English Revolution of the Seventeenth Century 

The Domination of Europe by France—Louis XIV 

The Rise of Russia: Peter the Great—The Rise of Prussia: Fred¬ 
erick the Great 


WORLD HISTORY 


(8) 467 


INTRODUCTION 

The problem of a course in World-History is (1) to show that a 
world-society exists, (2) to trace its development from the beginnings in 
Egypt and Mesopotamia, six thousand years ago to the present time, 
(3) to describe the present world-situation and our relation to it as cit¬ 
izens of a world-society. We shall see that we are no longer simply 
American citizens, we are world-citizens with interests reaching to the 
most distant parts of the globe. 

The Outline 

I. Aims of the Course 

A. To show that a world society exists 

B. To trace its development from the beginnings to the present 
time 

C. To describe the present world situation and our relation to it 

II. The Prehistoric Age of Man in Europe 

A. The Early Stone Age: the stone fist-hatchet 

B. The Middle Stone Age: flint and ivory tools, weapons 

C. The Late Stone Age: wooden huts, pottery, weaving, commerce 

III. Society Six Thousand Years Ago 

A. Distribution of peoples on the globe—Their isolation 

1. Relation to their physical environment 

2. Relation to each other—Transportation and communication 

3. Little consciousness of the real problems of life 

4. Religion—Superstition—Their effect on life 

IV. How a World-Society was Formed, 3400 B. C.-1920 A. D. 

A. An Oriental Society, 3400 B. C.-525 B. C. 

B. A Mediterranean Society—Greeks—The Roman Empire, 400 

A. D. 

C. A European-Oriental Society, 1492 

D. A European-Oriental-American Society 

E. An Atlantic-Oriental Society 

F. A World-Society, 1920 


WORLD HISTORY 


468 (9) 

V. Society Today 

A. Its theatre: the habitable globe 

B. Its actors: all the peoples 

C. Its character: compact, complex, interdependent 

D. Steam and electricity 

E. Science—Art—Literature—History—Philosophy—Religion 

F. Individual development the end of society 

G. The task of the present generation 

1. To create institutions favorable to individual development 

2. To organize the states of the world into a co-operative so¬ 
ciety 

Questions 

1. When did history begin and when will it end? 

2. How much of all man’s history can the historian reconstruct? 

3. Why is it necessary that history should be studied and taught among 
civilized peoples? 

4. Why is it necessary that the reconstruction of history should be as 
complete and exact (true) as possible? 

5. Give a definition of history. Explain all the terms in Bernheim’s 
definition: “History is the science of the unique evolution of man 
in his activities as a social being”. 

6. What are the differences between society six thousand years ago 
and today as regards (a) geography, (b) population, (c) material 
or physical comforts, (d) classes in society, (e) education, (f) gov¬ 
ernment, (g) the individual? 

7. What are the problems of the present generation (a) political, (b) 
economic, (c) social? 

8. Are you a world-citizen? Give reasons for your answer. 


References 

Webster, 1-28; Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 1-9; West, 1-8; Robin¬ 
son and Breasted, I, 1-16; Regent’s Syllabus, 2-3; Elson, 1-21; Hayes 
and Moon, 1-13. 


WORLD HISTORY 


(10) 460 


THE ORIENTAL EMPIRES 

Civilization, so far as available records show, began in a small region 
in the Nile valley and in Mesopotamia about six thousand years ago. 
The peoples were Lybians, Semites and Indo-Europeans and numbered 
probably 40,000,000. The organization of their governments was impe¬ 
rialistic. There was a series of small empires attempting unification of 
the known peoples and these were finally swallowed up by Persia about 
510 B. C. Their civilization was unprogressive. Government was by 
kings, nobles and priests and the masses were degraded and poor. Trans¬ 
portation and communication were primitive, education did not exist, and 
superstition dominated life. 

The Outline 

I. Location and Area of the First Civilization 

A. Valley of the Nile—Region of Tigris and Euphrates Rivers 

II. Population 

A. Lybians, Semites and Indo-Europeans—About 40,000,000 

III. The Successive Empires 

A. Cretan Empire, 2000-1500 B. C.: Sea power, Height of power 

B. Babylonian Empire, 2100-1600 B. C.—Hammurabi 

C. The Egyptian Empire, 1550-1225 B. C. 

D. Balance of power period—The Jewish Kingdom 

E. The Assyrian Empire, 1100-606 B. C. 

F. Balance of power period—Media—Babylonia—Lydia—Egypt 

G. The Persian Empire—A world-empire about 510 B. C. 

¥ 

IV. International Relations 

A. Conflicts between states settled by force 

B. Formation of empires 

1. The subject peoples held together by force 

V. The State of Civilization 

A. Government: Absolute monarchy 

B. Classes of peoples: Nobles, priests, tradesmen, serfs, slaves 

1. The few living in luxury 

2. The masses ignorant and miserably poor 


470 (11) 


WORLD HISTORY 


C. Economic life 

1. Agriculture—Grazing—Trade 

D. No education nor science 

E. Architecture and sculpture in Egypt 

F. Religion and superstition dominated life 

VI. Oriental Civilization Unprogressive 

A. Tradition dominated—Little opportunity for the individual 

VII. Contributions to Civilization 

A. Sciences—Religious ideas—The art of writing—Legal codes 

Questions 

1. Into what ages is the pre-historic world divided and what are their 
characteristics ? 

2. What do you understand by civilization? Is it materialistic or 
spiritual in character? Illustrate and explain your answer. 

3. Name and locate the various Oriental Empires and give approximate 
time in the order of their growth. 

4. What geographic and economic conditions contributed or made pos¬ 
sible the despotism of the Oriental empires? 

5. What conditions of transportation and communication prevented the 
Oriental civilization being progressive? 

6. What was the character of the Oriental government? How different 
from our own? 

7. What was the character of international relations in this period? 
What progress have we made in this respect? What two possible 
ways are there of settling disputes between nations ? 

8. What tendency do you note in the unification and organization of 
civilized areas? On what principle were they organized? Make 
clear the difference between the imperialistic and the federative 
principle of organization of nations or states. 

9. Color a set of outline maps showing the various Oriental Empires, 
Cretan, Babylonian, Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian and Jewish King¬ 
doms. 

References 

Webster, 29-63; West, 9-52; Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 10-46; 


WORLD HISTORY 


(12) 471 


THE GREEKS AND THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER 

The geography of Greece gave rise to a different civilization from 
that which we saw in the orient. Her seacoasts invited interchange of 
peoples and ideas thus making for greater intelligence. A high civiliza¬ 
tion by a dark race appeared early on the Island of Crete, but disappeared 
under the white invaders from the north. A new Greek civilization ap¬ 
peared on the coast of Asia Minor and spread around the Aegean and 
Black Seas. This Greek world had no central government but was made 
up of city-states whose bonds of unity were language, literature, relig¬ 
ion and games. It developed a remarkable art, literature and philosophy 
and a democratic form of government which developed individuality in 
contrast with the oriental civilization. These differences led to a clash 
between the two civilizations in the Persian wars. In these wars Persia 
was driven from the Aegean. At the same time the Greeks defeated the 
Etruscans in the West on the Island of Sicily. 

But the Greeks lacked political unity. Repeated attempts at feder¬ 
ation finally resulted in the domination of Alexander of Macedon who 
attempted to fuse the East and the West. After his death another at¬ 
tempt to unify the Greeks was made by the Greek Leagues but they were 
all swallowed up by the well organized state in the west—Rome. 


The Outline 

I. The Greeks a People of Sea-coasts and Islands 

A. Union through the sea 

II. Appearance of Civilization in Greece 

A. The Cretan Civilization,, 2000-1500 B. C. 

1. The work of a dark people from Africa 

B. White Invaders from the North 

1. Disappearance of Cretan empire and civilization 

C. Rise of a New Greek civilization 

1. First appearance on coast of Asia Minor 

2. Greek colonization and spread of Greek life, 1000-600 B. C. 

III. The Character of the Greek World 

A. Large number of city states 

B. Bonds of unity: Language, literature, games, religion 

C. Contrast with the Orient—Individuality—Progress 


472 


(13) 


WORLD HISTORY 


IV. Struggle Between the Greek and the Non-Greek World 

A. Struggle with the Persian empire, 492-479 B. C. 

1. Marathon—Thermopylae—Salamis—Plataea 

2. Persia driven from the Aegean 

B. Victory of Greeks of Sicily against the Etruscans 

V. Flowering of Greek Civilization 

A. Athenian democracy—Slavery 

B. Greek Art—History—Literature—Philosophy 

VI. Attempts to Unify the Greeks Politically 

A. The Confederacy of Delos, 478 B. C. 

B. The Athenian Empire—The Peloponnesian wars, 431-404 B. C. 

C. Spartan supremacy—Role of Persia 

D. Theban supremacy, 371-362 B. C. 

E. Macedon dominates the Greek states, 360-338 B. C. 

VII. The Greek World and Alexander the Great 

A. Alexander of Macedon—Conquers Persia—A World-Empire, 
334 B. C. 

B. The breakup of Alexander’s Empire 

1. The Greek-Macedonian Kingdoms: Egypt, Syria, Macedon 

2. Spartan Monarchy 

3. The Greek Leagues: Achaean, Aetolian 

4. Complex society without center 
a. Organization a necessity 

5. Danger to democracy and federation 


VIII. Greek Contributions 

A. Literature—Art—Political Ideas—Sciences—Philosophy—Ethi¬ 
cal Ideas 

Questions 

1. What is the geographical nature of the Greek World? Locate it 
and show its effect on the civilization. 

2. Describe the Cretan civilization, its date, its location, its character, 
its people and the cause of its disappearance. 


WORLD HISTORY 


(14) 473 


3. Who were the Greeks, when did they appear in Europe and where 
did they settle? Answer fully and definitely. 

4. What was a city-state ? What was the relation of Greek city-states 
to each other and what were the two types of city-states? 

5. Contrast the Oriental civilization with the Greek in respect to polit¬ 
ical unity, cultural bonds, individual opportunity and progress. 

6. What were the causes of the Persian wars, immediate and remote? 
What were the chief events in them and what was their*significance ? 

7. Describe the Confederacy of Delos—its purpose, its character, its 
functioning. Compare it with the Athenian Empire. 

8. Explain fully the difference between federation and empire, and 
give concrete examples. 

9. What caused the Peloponnesian War? Who were the combatants? 
How did it indicate the attitude of Greek states toward each other? 

10. Describe the Greek culture in Art, Literature, History and Phil¬ 
osophy, giving examples and the names of distinguished men and 
their achievements. 

11. What were the two causes of the conquest of the Greeks by Philip 
of Macedon? What Greek statesman saw Philip’s designs and why 
could he not thwart them? 

12. What was Alexander’s object in the conquest of Persia and what 
importance attached to the results of his efforts? 

13. What were six definite attempts of the Greek states at unification? 

14. Color two maps showing (1) Greek colonization and (2) Alexan¬ 
der’s Empire. 

% 

References 

Webster, 65-110; West, 53-147; Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 49- 
115; Robinson and Breasted, *111-239; Regent’s Syllabus, 6-14; Elson, 
60-131. 

THE ROMAN EMPIRE—A WORLD STATE 

This early civilization was moving westward. While the Greeks were 
fighting Persia to preserve their liberties a new state was growing up 
in Italy under a republican form of government with its capital at Rome. 
This Roman republic conquered and unified Italy. She then conquered 
the western Mediterranean countries destroying her rival, Carthage, and 
turning to the east she swallowed up the Oriental and Greek states. 

After conquest her task was to organize this great area whose boun¬ 
daries were the Rhine and Danube, the Tigris and Euphrates, the deserts 


474 (15) 


WORLD HISTORY 


and the ocean. There were difficulties in the fact that there was a nat¬ 
ural division in the empire, a Greek east and a Latin west. For purposes 
of administration political divisions were made with Rome the imperial 
center. The governmental organization had become imperialistic in the 
attempt to control this vast area of diverse peoples. Rome gave her 
people, as bonds of unity, a common law, literature, language and relig¬ 
ion and imposed peace upon them. But the elements of disintegration 
were already present. Her economic situation was difficult due to poor 
means of transportation and communication and to the fact that slavery 
and serfdom brought on agricultural decay. These things together with 
Rome’s failure to solve the question of representation in government led 
to the disintegration of the Empire. 


The Outline 

I. Formation of a Roman Republic 

A. Position of Rome in Italy 

B. The Roman constitution—The Senate 

II. Conquest of the Mediterranean Peoples 

A. Conquest and Unification of Italy, 420-272 B. C. 

B. Conquest of the west, 264-50 B. C. 

1. Destruction of Carthage, 264-146 B. C. 

2. The Conquest of Gaul by Caesar, 58-50 B. C.—Romanized 

C. Conquest of the East, 200-47 B. C. 

1. Macedonia—The Greek States—Asiatic Kingdoms—Syria— 
Egypt 

2. Two different civilizations, Eastern and Western 

III. Organization of the World by Rome 

A. Boundaries of the Empire 

« 

B. Natural divisions 

1. Greek-Asiatic East—Latin West 

C. Political divisions—Rome the Center 

1. Prefectures—Dioceses—Provinces—Municipalities 

2. Imperialism and destruction of local political life 

3. Difficulties of control—No regular imperial succession 

D. Language: Latin for government, Greek for literature 

E. Law—The Institutes of Justinian 


WORLD HISTORY 


(16) 475 


F. Roman citizenship to all freemen 

G. Economic situation 

1. Primitive transportation and communication 

2. Slavery and serfdom led to agricultural decay 

H. Religion 

1. Rise of Christianity—Becomes a state religion 

I. The Pax Romana—Brotherhood of Man—Marcus Aurelius 

IV. Disintegration of the Empire 

A. Lack of internal organization 

V. Roman Contributions to Civilization 

A. Law and government—Latin and the romance languages—Art 

and architecture 

Questions 

1. What were the limits of the Roman Empire 400 A. D. and how many 
of these were natural limits? 

2 . Why was the Mediteranean called a “Roman Lake” ? 

3. Compare the arrangement of the lands making up the Roman empire 
with those making up the United States, noting the chief differences. 
Which was more favorable to the early development of a civilized 
society ? 

4. What civilized states, besides the Roman Empire, existed in Europe 
in 400 A.D.? 

5. What peoples had been incorporated into the Roman Empire? 

6. What modern states occupy territory that formed part of the em¬ 
pire? 

7. How many of the great capitals of modem Europe existed at the 
time of the empire and how many have come into existence since? 

8. How did the Roman empire come into existence? 

9. What was the condition of the world of the Mediterranean before 
Rome, in language, law, government and religion? 

10. What changes did Rome make in these matters, how were the 
changes made and did they represent an advance over the situation 
that the Romans found? 


* 


476 


(17) 


WORLD HISTORY 


11. The Roman Empire had a population as large as that of the United 
States. Was it as compact, that is, were the people of Asia Minor 
as closely in touch with the people of Britain as the people of Maine 
are with those of Oregon? 

12. What was the “Pax Romana”? 

13. Color a map showing the Roman Empire at its greatest extent. 

References 

Webster, 112-156; West, 148-243; Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 116- 
179; Robinson and Breasted, I, 241-313; Elson, 133-209; Hayes and Moon, 
20-26; Regent’s Syllabus, 14-23. 


THE BREAKUP OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 

The Empire of Charlemagne and The Holy Roman Empire 
As a result of the pressure of enemies on the eastern frontier of 
the Roman Empire the Emperor Constantine in the fourth century moved 
his capital to Constantinople. This left the West exposed to the north¬ 
ern barbarians. Pushed by the Huns these German tribes moved into 
the empire meeting with little opposition. There was little patriotism 
in the empire due to the disintegrating conditions mentioned above. Be¬ 
sides many Germans had already entered as colonists and soldiers. 

These tribes established kingdoms in Italy, Spain, Africa and Gaul. 
Later some of this territory was won back by Emperor Justinian. The 
French alone set up a permanent kingdom out of which grew the great 
empire of Charlemagne. After conquests in Germany, Spain and Italy 
Charlemagne was crowned Emperor in Rome by the Pope. He was suc¬ 
cessful in organizing and governing his territory but at his death the 
empire fell to pieces due to family quarrels and foreign foes. In 843 
his grandsons divided his empire into three parts. 

After a period of feudal anarchy a German king, Otto I, succeeded 
in being crowned Emperor at Rome, 962, and the Roman empire was re¬ 
stored for the second time. But there was no political unity even though 
the imperial idea persisted. 

The Outline 

I. The Breakup of the Roman Empire 

> 

A. Transfer of the capital to Constantinople, 330 

1. The Greek East—The Latin West 

B. The German Invasions, 400-568 

1. Pushed by the Huns, 374 

2. Invasion of Italy—Gaul—Spain and Africa, 400-428 


WORLD HISTORY 


(18) 477 


3. Nature of invasions and conquests 

4. Expansion of the theater of history 

C. The German Kingdoms 

1. Kingdoms of Ostrogoths—Visigoths—Burgundians—Van¬ 
dals—Lombards 

2. Partial recovery under Justinian, 527-565—The Code 

3. The Frankish kingdom—Conquest of Gaul 

II. The Empire of Charlemagne, 800-814 (First Restoration of Roman 
Empire) 

A. The rise of the ancestors of Charlemagne (Charolingians) 

B. Conquests of Charlemagne in Germany, Spain and Italy, 774-800 

C. Charlemagne crowned emperor, 800 

D. Organization of the government—The Missi—The Church 

E. Breakup of Charlemagne’s empire 

1. Family quarrels—Foreign foes: Norsemen, Saracens, Avars 

2. French, German and Italian elements 

3. The treaty of Verdun, 843—Division of the Empire 
a. Beginning of the Alsace-Lorraine question 

4. Feudalism—A period of chaos and anarchy 

III. The Holy Roman Empire (Second Restoration of the Empire) 

A. Political center passes beyond the Rhine 

1. Formation of a German kingdom—Otto I 

B. Otto I: King of the Lombards (961), Crowned Emperor of 
Rome (962) 

IV. The World Problem in the Tenth Century 

A. No political unity: Greek, Arab, German, French states 

B. Persistence of the imperial idea—Example of Rome 

Questions 

1. Why is it natural to treat the period between 400 and 1300 A. D. 
as a unit, i.e., what are the natural limits and main characteristics 
of the period? 

2. Name the different migrating tribes. From an examination of the 
map state (a) where they came from, (b) what countries they 
crossed in their migrations, (c) where the tribes finally settled. 


478 


(19) 


WORLD HISTORY 


3. What was the relation of the invaders to the imperial government?' 
To the Roman people? 

4. Why did the empire fall into eastern and western halves? 

5. What were the two great accomplishments of Justinian’s reign, and 
what was the importance of each? 

6. By what steps did Clovis build up a Frankish kingdom? 

7. What was the historical significance of his conversion to Chris¬ 
tianity ? 

8. What is feudalism? Describe the feudal system. 

9. What things did Charles Martel do that were beneficial to the 
Franks? How were they beneficial? 

10. What was the significance of the anointing of Pippin and his sons 
by the Pope? What was the “Donation of Pippin” and its signifi¬ 
cance ? 

11. Make an outline showing the groups in which you can arrange 
Charlemagne’s work as ruler and state under each head what he did. 

12. (a) How did he become emperor? (b) How did his relation to his 
subjects change when he took the new title? 

13. What was the relation of Charlemagne to the popes ? To the clergy ? 

14. How was the kingdom of Germany built up out of the duchies? 

15. How did the German King become Roman emperor? 

16. Color four maps showing (1) The German Kingdoms, (2) Charle¬ 
magne’s Empire, (3) The Holy Roman Empire, (4) The Crusades. 

References 

Webster, 157-180; West, 244-253, 259-267, 269-279, 291-293; Robinson, 
Breasted and Smith, 181-190, 194-217; Robinson and Breasted, I, 315- 
332, 369-403, 438-440; Elson, 210-220, 231-251; Hayes and Moon, 26-29; 
Regent’s Syllabus, 23, 25 (bottom), 26 (bottom) to top of 28. This syl¬ 
labus compared with your outline is a good illustration of the different 
syntheses resulting from different individual points of view. 


MOHAMMEDANISM AND THE ARAB KINGDOM 

While Christianity was spreading among the peoples of western 
Europe and was becoming established among the Germanic tribes a new 
religion appeared in Arabia which, like Christianity, centered around the 
personality of one man. Its founder. Mohammed, effected the political 


WORLD HISTORY 


(20) 479 


-and religious unity of the Arab tribes and became the head of their state. 
After his death, his followers entered upon a period of conquest and 
gathered successively into a great empire Persia, Egypt, North Africa 
and Spain. They pushed into France but were driven back by Charles 
Martel, ruler of the Franks, in the battle of Tours, 732. Thus Europe 
was saved to Europeans and Christianity. The Arabs imposed their re¬ 
ligion on the conquered peoples. They also brought with them a civil¬ 
ization superior to that of western Europe, which civilization they had 
acquired through their conquest of Persia. They established centers of 
culture and seats of learning which attracted many students. They had 
developed art, science, philosophy, and had perfected a beautiful archi¬ 
tecture. They held Spain from 711 to 1492 when they were driven out 
by Ferdinand and Isabella. 

The Outline 

/ * , 

I. Rise of Mohammedanism 

A. Arabia and the Arabs—Lack of political and religious unity 

B. Mohammed and a new religion 

1. Allah is God and Mohammed his prophet 

2. The Koran 

3. The Hejira, 622 

C. Conquest of Mecca and unification of the Arabs 

D. Mohammed founds a state 

1. He its religious and political head 

II. The Arab Empire 

A. After Mohammed, politics dominates religion 

B. Arab conquests—Persia and Egypt 

C. Division among the Arabs—The two sects 

D. Union and renewed conquests 

1. Africa—Carthage, 698—Spain, 711 

2. Southern France 

a. The Franks—Charles Martel 

b. The battle of Tours, 732—Defeat of the Arabs 

E. The Empire 

1. Extent and importance 

2. Civilization 

a. Influenced by Greek and Persian civilization 

b. Centers of culture 


(480 (21) 


WORLD HISTORY 


(1) Bagdad and Damascus in the east 

(2) Cairo in Egypt—Cordova in Spain 

c. Features of Culture—Science—Art—Commerce 
d. Contributions to western civilization 

F. Division of the Empire 

1. The Ommiades, 661-750—After 750 in Spain 

2. The Abbasides, 750—In east 

Questions 

1. Describe the geography of Arabia. Compare with Greece. 

2. How did Mohammed unify the Arabs? 

3. What is the Koran and how did it come into existence? 

4. What are the chief religious teachings of the Koran? 

5. Compare Mohammedanism with Christianity in respect to (a) its 
founder, (b) its moral teachings, (c) its spirituality, (d) its extent. 

6. Over what countries did the Arabs extend their conquest and how 
long did it take to push the empire to its greatest limit? 

7. Why was the battle of Poitiers of great importance? Was it good 
or bad for civilization in Gaul that the Arabs were defeated ? 

8. Make a review outline of four pages, condensed from the subject 
matter of this outline and the four preceding outlines. 

9. Color map to show the location of the Germanic kingdoms estab¬ 
lished in the territory of the Roman Empire, giving the dates of 
their founding. 

10. Color map to show the extent of the Arab empire, the area occupied 
by the Germanic kingdoms and by the Roman Empire about 732 A. D. 

References 

Webster, 180-187; West, 252-255; Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 191- 
194; Robinson and Breasted, I, 358-368; Elson, 225-229; Hayes and Moon, 
46; Regent’s Syllabus, 26. 

THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE PAPACY AND THE EMPIRE— 

THE CRUSADES 

From the beginning of the Christian era the bishop at Rome had 
gradually assumed more and more responsibility and more importance 
in the eyes of the people. His influence was greatly increased when the 


WORLD HISTORY 


(22) 481 


political seat of tht Roman empire was removed to Constantinople in 330 

A. D. and all restraint was removed from him. He became an Italian 
prince and a feudal lord and finally attempted to rule Europe. 

A long bitter struggle between papacy and empire lasting about one 
hundred and seventy-five years (1073-1250) followed. The struggle was 
carried on at three different periods beginning over the question of the 
investiture and resulting in the victory of the papacy and the end of the 
empire. 

Almost contemporaneous with this struggle there occurred another 
religious struggle, a war between Christian Europe and the Mohammedan 
East (1096-1270). This was caused by the ill-treatment of pilgrims to 
the Holy Land by the Mohammedan Turks. The Turks had conquered 
Arabia, accepted the Mohammedan religion and were now moving west¬ 
ward and threatening the empire with its seat at Constantinople. The 
emperor asked help of the Pope who became a leader of the Crusades 
against the Turks. The result was the loss of the East to the Christians 
and the driving of the Mohammedans from Spain as late as 1492. Many 
advantages resulted to civilization from this association of the peoples 
of the East and the West. 

The Outline 

I. The Rise of the Papacy 

A. The origin and spread of Christianity 

B. Greek and Latin Christianity—Rome and Constantinople 

C. The Pope is an Italian prince—Relation to European states 

D. Confusion of Church and state through Feudalism 

1. Archbishops and bishops are also temporal princes 
a. Who should appoint and control them 

2. The papacy attempted to rule Europe 

II. Clash between the Papacy and the Empire 

A. Gregory VII and Henry IV, 1073-1085 

1. Investiture: Selection of Pope and appointment of church 
officers 

2. Henry IV excommunicated, goes to Canossa—Gregory dies 
in exile 

3. Henry V and the Concordat of Worms, 1122 

B. Frederick I (Barbarossa) the Hohenstaufen, 1152-1177 

1. The city leagues support the popes 

2. Frederick I, defeated, makes humiliating terms, 1177 

C. Frederick II, 1213-1250 

1. King of Sicily—First of modem rulers 


482 (23) 


WORLD HISTORY 


2. Struggle against the popes and the cities 

3. Frederick succumbs in the struggle, 1250 

III. Result of the Struggle between the Papacy and Empire 

A. The end of the Empire 

B. The rise of national states 

IV. The Crusades—A Struggle between Christian Europe and the Mo¬ 
hammedan East, 1096-1270 

A. Appearance of the Turk in the East—Conquers Arabs 

1. Treatment of pilgrims to Holy Land 

2. Position of the Greek empire—Asks help from the Pope 

B. The popes the leaders of the crusades 

C. Course of the Crusades 

D. Results of the Crusades 

E. Nature of the Medieval Church 

Questions 

1. Describe step by step the rise of the Papacy. 

2. Show how the Holy Roman Empire came into existence. 

3. What were the causes of the conflict between Henry IV and Greg¬ 
ory VII? 

4. Was Henry or Gregory finally victorious? Answer fully. 

5. What was the nature of the Concordat of Worms, 1122? 

6. Haw did the struggle between Frederick Babarossa and the papacy 
differ from that between Henry IV and the papacy? 

7. What was the outcome of this second phase of the struggle be¬ 
tween the empire and the papacy? 

8. What evidence can be cited of the power of the papacy under Inno¬ 
cent III? 

9. How did the struggle between Frederick II and the papacy end? 

10. How did the medieval church differ from modern churches? 

11. What was the belief in the middle ages concerning the efficacy of 
the sacraments? Cite illustrations. 

12. How did the church enforce the authority of the church? 


I 


WORLD HISTORY (24) 483 

13. What peoples engaged in the Crusades, when did the Crusades begin 
and how long did they last? 

14. What were the causes of these wars and were they the same for all 
the Crusades? 

15. What was the relation of the church to the Crusades ? 

16. What were the results of the Crusades? State in a numbered list. 

17. How would you have recognized a crusader and a knight? See 
illustrations. 

18. What were some of the peculiar institutions growing up out of 
the Crusades and what influence had these organizations ? 

19. Were the Crusades conducted in a Christian spirit? Cite proofs. 

20. What was the significance of the Crusades ? 

21. Color a map showing the routes of the first four Crusades. 

References 

Webster, 187-194, 203-213; West, 255-258, 279-283, 294-297; Robin¬ 
son, Breasted and Smith, 217-226, 237-247; Robinson and Breasted, I, 334- 
358, 438-495; Elson, 222-225, 250-263; Regent’s Syllabus, 29-32. 

THE RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

With the breakup of the Holy Roman Empire in the 13th century 
the national spirit of its several states was awakened and in the states 
of the west it soon became an active force. The effects of the Crusades 
also stimulated the national spirit. Three states, England, France and 
Spain,, through the work of their monarchs, developed strong national 
governments. In England, the Roman, German, Danish and Norman 
conquests had by the 11th century furnished the racial elements which 
by the 14th century had been so welded that the people felt their na¬ 
tionality. By the Norman conquest and by intermarriage of kings, Eng¬ 
land claimed possession of large areas of French territory and France 
in turn claimed overlordship of England. The Hundred Years’ War ex¬ 
pelled England from the continent and forced her to turn westward for 
new lands. 

France was also conquered by the Romans and the Germans and 
after several hundred years of feudal rule her monarchs began the uni¬ 
fication of her territory, administration and language. A long and violent 
quarrel with the papacy occurred in the 13th century. This was fol¬ 
lowed by the Hundred Years War with England in the 14th and 15th 
centuries resulting in the establishment of French nationality through 
the efforts and the leadership of Joan of Arc. Spain was also conquered 


I 


484 (25) WORLD HISTORY 

by Romans and Germans. In the 8th century the Mohammedan Arabs 
conquered Spain and imposed their civilization which was of a high order 
upon her. In the 15th century the spirit of nationality became active 
and under Ferdinand and Isabella the Mohammedans were driven out 
and Spain became the greatest power in Europe. 

The Outline 

I. Influences Making for Nationality 

A. The breakup of the Roman Empire, 13th Century 

B. The effects of the Crusades 

II. The Growth of Nationality 

A. England 

1. Roman Britain to 487 

2. German invasions and conquests—Formation of England 

3. The Danish conquest and empire, 839-878 

4. The Norman conquest, 1066—Effect on England 

5. The Hundred Years’ War with France 

a. The expulsion of England from the continent 

b. Influence on English history 

B. France 

1. Romanized Gaul 

2. The German conquests to 406 

3. Feudal France—A period of decentralization 

4. Unification of France—The Work of the Monarchs—Hugh 
Capet, 987 

a. In territory, administration, language 

5. France and the Papacy 

6. The Hundred Years’ War—Joan of Arc—Nationality 

7. The frontiers of France 

a. Burgundy—Germany—Piedmont—Spain—England 

C. Spain 

1. Roman Spain 

2. Spain under the Visigoths, 415-711 

3. The Arab conquest, 711 

a. The Visigoths in Northwest 

4. The reconquest of the peninsula by Ferdinand and Isabella 

a. Union of Castile and Aragon, 1479 

b. Conquest of Granada and expulsion of Moors, 1492 


WORLD HISTORY 


(26) 485 


5. The importance of Spain in the 15th century 

6. Spain in Italy (Sicily, Naples and Milan) 

Questions 

1. How did the Crusades affect the spirit of nationality? Explain 
fully. 

2. What states first attained nationality in Europe ? Why did these 
attain it first? 

3. Name in order the peoples that have invaded England and state the 
result of each invasion. 

4. Which people gave England her name, her language, Christianity, 
her institutions? 

5. Where did France get her idea of a centralized government? 

6. What peoples successively conquered France and what did each con¬ 
tribute to her civilization? 

7. Who was the first king of France and when and how did he become 
king? 

8. What can you say of the Hundred Years War as to (a) date, (b) 
causes, (c) principal events, (d) leading characters, (e) results? 

9. How do you explain the phenomenal work of Joan of Arc? 

10. What successive peoples conquered Spain? Name the contribution 
of each to her civilization. 

11. To what rulers does Spain owe her nationality and what means did 
they use to attain it? Did these rulers have any world-vision? 
Give proof. 

12. Why did Italy and Germany not attain nationality in this period? 

13. Color a map showing the states that became national states in 
the 15th century. 

References 

Webster, 194-201, 236-239; West, 267-269, 283-291, 175, 180, 245, 254, 

316-317; Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 147-148, 202, 227-236, 279-288; 

Robinson and Breasted, I, 353-357, 405-436, 318-319, 366-368, 375, 564- 

567; Elson, 264-298; Hayes and Moon, 35-37, 126-149; Regent’s Syllabus, 

33-36. 


i 


486 (27) 


WORLD HISTORY 


THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE 

Toward the close of the period we call the Middle Ages there grad¬ 
ually appeared a general awakening of Europe to a desire for learning 
and an aspiration for better things. We call this period The Renais¬ 
sance (abopt the 13th to 16th centuries). For a better understanding 
of the period a view of the economic development of the world is neces¬ 
sary. The breakup of the Roman Empire caused the decay of cities, 
industry and commerce. Since transportation and communication were 
still very primitive these were not easily revived. The first great impetus 
given to trade was through the Crusades, which revived trade with the 
Orient. Southern cities were revived and northern cities were founded 
Guilds were organized, leagues formed, fairs held to promote trade. 
With the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, 1453, the trade routes 
were shifted from the East toward the West when new routes to India 
were sought. 

Due to the growth of cities as centers of trade a middle class grew 
up which, in its struggle against the clergy and nobility, was aided by 
the king. This class soon attained representation in government and 
especially in England later played an important role in the nation’s 
history. 

With the increase of wealth in the cities there began an interest in 
education. In the Middle Ages this had been the monopoly of the monks 
but about the beginning of the 13th century universities were established. 
In the 13th and 14th centuries, the new languages, Italian, French, Span¬ 
ish, English and German began to be used as literary languages and 
modern literature began to be produced. Science had its beginning at 
this time. A revival of the study of Latin and Greek and of the culture 
of those peoples resulted in a greatly increased interest in literature, 
art, and philosophy. New lands were discovered; new theories of as¬ 
tronomy developed; printing, the compass and gun-powder were invented. 

The Outline 

I. The Economic Development of the World from 400-1500 

A. Effect of the breakup of the Roman Empire 

1. Decay of cities and industry—Commerce interrupted 

B. Transportation and Communication 

C. The Crusades and trade with the Orient 

D. Revival of cities in the south and growth in the north 

1. City organization and life—City leagues—Fairs 

2. Relation of cities to nobles and king 

E. Shifting of commerce to the Baltic and Atlantic 


WORLD HISTORY 


(28) 487 


II. The Middle Class 

A. Classes in northern Europe at the fall of the Empire 

1. Clergy—Nobles—Peasants—Serfs 

B. Rise of the middle class, due to growth of cities 

1. Struggle against nobility and clergy 

2. Aided by King—National Assemblies—Representation— 
England 

3. Role in later history of world democracy 

III. The Universities and Education 

A. The Monks and the monasteries—The monks and learning 

B. Education—Illiteracy common—Superstition 

C. The Universities: Their rise, organization, teaching 

IV. The New Languages and Literatures 

A. Italian (Dante)—French—English (Chaucer)—Spanish—Ger¬ 
man 

V. The Gothic Architecture 

A. Gothic cathedrals—Relation to religious life 

B. Monasteries—Castles and fortified cities 

VI. Discoveries and Inventions 

A. New earth and new heavens 

B. Printing—Compass—Gunpowder 

VII. The Revival of Learning 

A. Revival of the study of Latin and Greek 

B. Revival of the culture of the Greek and Latin peoples 

C. Fusion of old and new Europe 

Questions 

1. In what part of Europe did cities exist in the early medieval period ? 

Why? 

2. How did a medieval town differ in appearance from a modern town ? 

3. How did a guild differ from a modem trade-union? 


488 


(29) 


WORLD HISTORY 


4. What were the trade routes, by sea and land, in the 13th and 14th 
centuries, through what cities did they pass, and what trading 
regions did they connect? 

5. Which of the regions are today less important commercially than 
at that time? 

6. If you could have travelled in the time of Charlemagne, 800, over 
the portions of northern Europe covered by the trade routes, and 
could have traversed the same region in 1400, what changes in the 
country and in society would you have noticed ? 

7. What are the two great groups of languages spoken in western 
Europe, what was their origin, and what are the first written ex¬ 
amples of each? 

8. Describe in detail the types of medieval literature and the life that 
served as a background. 

9. What was the origin of some of the prominent universities of 
Europe and when were they established? What was the relation 

of Abelard to the University of Paris? 

* • 

10. What is the ‘‘Divine Comedy”, how important a place does it hold 
in the literature of Italy and the world, and to what circumstances 
was its greatness due ? 

11. What do you mean by the term “Renaissance”? 

12. What artistic remains had the Greeks and Romans left behind them 
that the men of the Renaissance could study and what would they 
gain from this study? 

13. What were the inventions of the period and how did they contribute 
to the formation of a larger and more democratic society? 

References 

Webster, 214-248; West, 297-304, 321-325; Robinson and Breasted, 

I, 497-560; Elson, 300-315; Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 248-278, 289- 

296; Hayes and Moon, 29-37, 77-96. 


THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD AND THE EXPANSION 

OF EUROPE 

We have noted by our study of the map how the civilized portion 
of the world has expanded from a small area southeast of the Mediter¬ 
ranean sea to the whole of Europe, part of Africa and Asia. In the 
fifteenth century people had as yet no knowledge of the larger globe. 
The masses in the country were ignorant and indifferent to new ideas 


WORLD HISTORY 


(30) 489 


and had no comforts. But in the cities a new class was growing up as 
a result of increased wealth and education. Commerce with the Orient 
had developed greatly. This was cut off by the capture of Constanti¬ 
nople by the Turks in 1453. This led to the necessity of finding new 
trade routes to India and with the help of the newly invented compass 
a search was made for a water route to the East. 

In 1492 Christopher Columbus, who had not only the conviction that 
by sailing west he would reach India but had the courage to carry out 
his ideas, made his famous voyage and discovered the new world. Other 
voyages followed. Two should be mentioned as of great importance, the 
circumnavigation of Africa by Vasco da Gama, 1497, and the circum¬ 
navigation of the globe by Magellan, 1519. These three voyages had 
the greatest significance. They demonstrated the rotundity of the earth 
and revealed the main bodies of land and water. There remained only 
to learn the correct form of the continents and to explore the interior. 
With the new inventions for printing these ideas soon became common 
knowledge. 

The theater of history was thus greatly widened and the expansion 
of European civilization into the Americas began. The Atlantic became 
the center of civilization. 

The Outline 

I. Condition of Europe in the Fifteenth Century 

A. The masses of the people 

1. In the country: Serfdom, poverty, ignorance 

2. In the cities: Free citizens, wealth, education 

B. Invention of printing by movable type by Gutenberg in 1450 

C. Condition of industry, trade, commerce 

1. Turks cut off the land route to the East 

a. The search for water route to east—The compass 

II. The State of Knowledge about the Earth 

A. Asia—Land journeys to Asia—The east coast of Asia 

B. The New World—The Northmen 

C. Africa: The north and northwest coast 

III. Geographical Discoveries 

A. Discovery of the New World 

1. Columbus and the Spanish court 

2. The famous voyage, 1492—Interest in his discovery 

3. Later voyages and discoveries 


490 


(31) 


WORLD HISTORY 


B. The Circumnavigation of Africa 

1. The work of the Portuguese—Prince Henry 

2. Voyage of Vasco da Gama, 1497 

C. The circumnavigation of the Globe—Magellan, 1519-1522 

D. The significance of the discoveries 

1. Demonstration of the rotundity of the earth 

2. Main bodies of land and water discovered 

IV. Widening of the Theater of History 

A. The inhabitants of the New World 

B. Expansion of Europe into the Americas 

1. English, French and Spanish in North America 

2. Spanish and Portuguese in South America 

C. The Atlantic becomes the center of civilization 

* y • 

Questions 

1. Describe the condition of the masses in Europe in the 15th century. 

2. What was the state of commerce and industry in the 15th century? 

3. Why was there a need for new trade routes in the 15th century? 

4. How much of the geography of the earth’s surface was known be¬ 
fore Columbus’ discovery? 

5. What three men made important discoveries and what was the 
achievement of each? Give dates. 

6. What did the above three discoveries contribute to the world’s 
progress ? 

7. What was the significance to history of the discovery of America? 
The significance to science? 

8. Where had been the center of civilization before this period ? What 
now becomes the center? 

9. Make a map showing the gradual spread of civilization from the 
valley of the Nile and of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley to the entire 
globe. Show it by periods in different colors. 

References 

Elson, 307-309; West, 325-328, 358-364, 386-391; Webster, 248-257; 
Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 296-299; Hayes and Moon, 41-74; Robin¬ 
son and Breasted, I, 497-531. 


WORLD HISTORY 


(32) 491 


THE SPANISH EMPIRE AND DUTCH REPUBLIC 

In the 16th century Spain built up the greatest empire in Europe. 
From his grandfather and grandmother, Ferdinand and Isabella, Charles 
V inherited Spain, Sicily, Naples and the New World; from his grand¬ 
father and grandmother, Maximillian and Mary of Burgundy, he inheri¬ 
ted Germany, The Netherlands and Milan. He was crowned Emperor of 
Germany in 1521. This was the greatest empire Europe had seen. 
Charles’ attempt to unify these lands led him into war with France and 
the Turks. In Germany the religious question, the Reformation, threat¬ 
ened to disrupt his Empire and in the Netherlands a similar threat 
resulted in the establishment of the Inquisition. Charles struggled with 
France over Italy and with the Turks over Hungary. The government 
of this vast territory together with the New World proved too difficult 
and in 1556 Charles abdicated. His son Philip inherited the Western 
possessions and the Empire of Germany went to his brother, Ferdinand. 

Philip had two main purposes: first, to restore the power of the 
Catholic church; second, to establish absolute government. This led him 
(1) into a struggle with the Netherlands which he lost when they formed 
the Dutch Republic; (2) into a struggle with England in which the power 
of Spain on the sea was broken, and (3) into wars with France in 
which Spain was defeated. He however defeated and broke the power 
of the Turks on the sea in the battle of Lepanto, 1571. Spain’s attempt 
to form a World Empire was a failure. 

The Outline 

I. The Formation of the Empire 

A. Charles V inherits from Ferdinand and Isabella 

1. Spain—Sicily—Naples—The New World 

B. Charles V inherits from the Hapsburgs 

1. Netherlands—Germany—Milan 

C. Emperor of Germany, 1521 (The Holy Roman Empire) 

II. The Empire at its Height 

A. Attempt to unify all these states 

1. Wars in Germany—The Reformation 

2. The condition of the Netherlands—Inquisition 

B. Wars with France and the Turks 

1. Struggle with France over Italy 

2. Struggle with Turks over Hungary 

C. Government of the New World 

D. Charles’ failure and abdication 


492 


(33) 


WORLD HISTORY 


III. The Fall of the Empire—Philip II, 1556-1598 

A. Philip not Emperor of Germany 

1. Annexes Portugal, 1580 

B. Double Aim of Philip 

1. To restore power of the Catholic church 

2. To establish absolute government 

C. Wars of Philip 

1. Struggle with the Netherlands 

a. Religious and political uprising—Alva, 1567-1573 

b. The Union of Utrecht, 1579 

c. Significance of loss of Netherlands 

2. Struggle with England—Religious situation 

a. Philip marries Mary of England 

b. Elizabeth’s policy—The Armada, 1588 

3. Wars with France 

a. Defeat of Spain, 1589-1598 

4. War with the Turks—Battle of Lepanto, 1571 

IV. Spain’s Attempt to Form World Empire a Failure 

Questions 

1. How did the Hapsburgs make the imperial title hereditary in the 
House of Austria? 

2. What countries did Charles V inherit and from whom did he inherit 
them ? 

3. How did Italy become the battle ground of the European Powers 
in the 15th century? 

4. What was the condition of Germany when Charles V became Em¬ 
peror? 

5. By what steps did Charles V try to unify his territory? 

6. Why did Charles V fail to unify and govern his realm? 

7. How was the Empire of Charles V divided at his abdication? 

8. What two chief aims had Philip II and by what means did he try 

to carry them out? 

9. What were the steps in the formation of the Dutch Republic and 
what was its significance? 

10. What were the steps in Philip’s struggle with England and what 
was the significance of the defeat of the Armada ? 


WORLD HISTORY 


(34) 493 


11. How did France defeat Philip of Spain? 

12. What was the significance of the battle of Lepanto? 

13. What Empires have you seen rise and fall in your study of history 
to the end of the 16th century? 



Why did Spain’s attempt to form a World-Empire fail? 


References 


West, 316-320, 333-334, 348-352; Webster, 269-274; Robinson, Breast¬ 
ed and Smith, 302-307, 331-334; Elson, 319, 330, 368-371; Hayes and 
Moon, 53-55, 111, 119, 155; Robinson and Breasted, I, 562-577, 619-645. 


THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 


In the sixteenth century another great empire was advancing into 
Europe from the southeast—the empire of the Ottoman Turks—threat¬ 
ening the very existence of European civilization and of the Christian 
religion. 

The Turks came in two swarms. The Seljukians entered Asia Minor 
in the 11th century, set up a kingdom but were overthrown by the Mon¬ 
gols. The Ottoman Turks came into Asia Minor in the 13th century, 
spread into Europe, and after the weakening of the Seljukian Turks 
by the Mongols spread east into Asia Minor. They set up their capital 
at Adrianople and in 1453 captured Constantinople for their capital. 
They had become Mohammedans with the conquest of Arabia and pushed 
their religion with fire and sword. They threatened the empire of 
Charles V and forced him to pay tribute. They were checked in 1529, 
their fleet defeated in 1571 and finally driven back from Vienna in 1683. 

The Turk is an Asiatic closely related to the Mongols. Of the Mongols 
% 

there had been great swarms entering Europe since the Huns came in 
the fourth century. The Avars and Bulgars, the Magyars, the hordes 
under Jenghis Khan and later under Timur or Tamerlane followed in 
the'next thousand years, some forming states. 

The civilization of the Turks is inferior to that of the West. They 
are destructive; hostile toward Western civilization and have contributed 
nothing to it. 


The Outline 


I. The Mongol Invasion and Kingdoms 

A. Home of Mongols in central Asia 

B. Send out successive swarms to Europe 

1. Hims, fourth and fifth centuries 

2. Avars and Bulgars, sixth to ninth centuries 

3. Magyars, latter part of ninth century 


494 


(35) 


WORLD HISTORY 


4. Great conquests in Asia and Europe in thirteenth century 
a. Jenghis Kahn and his successors, 1300 

II. The Turks in Asia Minor 

A. The Seljukian Turks, 11th century 

1. Enter service of Arab rulers 

2. Set up their kingdom—Overthrown by Mongols 

B. Ottoman Turks, 13th century 

1. In western Asia Minor in thirteenth century 

2. Spread into this Balkan peninsula 

3. Spread east after weakening of the Seljukian Turks 

4. Checked by the rise of Timur, 1365-1405 

5. Destroyed the Serbian kingdom, 1389 

6. Established their capital at Adrianople 

7. Conquered Constantinople, 1453—End of Greek empire 

8. Pushed beyond the Danube—Charles V pays tribute 

a. Battle of Lepanto, 1571—Defeat of the Turkish fleet 

III. Character of the Ottoman Empire 

A. Nomads—Semi-barbarous—Fighters—Mohammedans 

B. Relation to the conquered—The Janisaries 

1. Intermarriage in Asia Minor 

2. Remained hostile and inferior 

IV. Effect of Turkish and Mongol Conquests 

A. Lowered the state of civilization 

B. Complicated the problem of world organization 

Questions 

1. Who are the Mongols and where was their original home ? 

2. Name eight successive swarms of Mongols that have moved into 
Europe or Asia Minor and give their dates. 

3. Compare Jenghis Khan in‘importance as a leader with Caesar and 
with Alexander the Great. 

4. What is the characteristic difference between Seljukian Turk and 
Ottoman Turk? Which came into Asia Minor first? 

5. What great Slavic kingdom existed in the Balkan peninsula before 
the coming of the Turks? 


WORLD HISTORY 


(36) 495 


6. What was the first Turkish capital in Europe? Was it before or 
after the capture of Constantinople? 

7. When did the Turks capture Constantinople and what was the sig¬ 
nificance of its capture? 

8. What was the relation of Charles V to the Turks and what does 
such a relationship signify? 

9. What, where and when was the battle of Lepanto and what is its 
significance ? 

10. What contribution has the Turk made to the world’s civilization? 
How long has he been in Europe? 

11. What are the Janisaries? 

12. What has been the effect of Turkish conquests (a) on civilization, 
(b) on world organization? 

13. State the differences between Turk and European (a) racially, (b) 
religiously, (c) culturally. 

14. Out of your fragmentary material write a connected narrative of 
the Mongols and the Turks in Europe. 

15. Make a map showing the extent of the Ottoman Empire at its great¬ 
est extent. 

References 

Elson, 13, 257, 262, 317, 331, 619; Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 

237, 386-387; West, 295, 317, 621-622; Webster, 18, 190-194, 200, 279-280, 

308-309, 530-531; Robinson and Breasted, I, 317, 320, 460-461, 467. 


THE REFORMATION AND THE THIRTY YEARS WAR 

In the 16th century a great change took place in the religious or¬ 
ganization of Europe. Previous to this there had been but one church 
to which every one belonged. The Reformation resulted in the forma¬ 
tion of several independent state churches. 

The common conception of the Reformation is that it was Protestant, 
that it secured freedom of conscience, that there was a reaction to this 
in the Catholic church in which the Jesuits led the/reform, all culminat¬ 
ing in the Council of Trent. The fact is that the reform in the Catholic 
church in the South began before the Protestant reform in the North 
but the aims of the two movements were different. In the South the 
aim was to get back to the condition of the medieval church. In the 
North the aim was to get back to Christianity as taught by Christ and 
the disciples. Christianity in the South had been modified by the old 
pagan religions, thus Greek Christianity differed from Latin Christianity. 


496 (37) 


WORLD HISTORY 


„ / 

The Southern Reformation began in Spain under Ferdinand and 
Isabella and the reformer Ximines. They reformed the clergy, the mon¬ 
asteries, the universities and by the introduction of the Inquisition trans¬ 
formed the religious life. In Italy Savonarola was leader of a reform 
movement and suffered martyrdom. In France by the revival of Greek 
and the study of the New Testament, new spiritual i life was attained. 

The Reformation in the North resulted in the development of the 
German conception of what Christianity meant. The movement was led 
by Luther and in the struggle to attain his ideas he broke from the 
Catholic church. In the end the Peace of Augsburg gave toleration to 
Catholic and Lutheran Princes. The Reformation spread to all norther^ 
Europe and in a short time religious wars were fought in the Nether¬ 
lands, France and Germany, each side trying to establish its religion. 

The Thirty Years’ War, the most notable of these, ended in the Treaty 
of Westphalia in 1648. This treaty granted toleration to both Catholic 
and Protestant. 

The Outline 

I. Introduction—What the Reformation Was 

A. The common conception of the Reformation not correct 

1. Protestant reformation—Freedom of conscience 

2. Catholic reaction—The Jesuits—Council of Trent 

B. The twofold character of the Reformation 

1. In South, restoration of the medieval church 

2. North, appearance of German Christianity 

II. The Reformation, in the South—Latin Countries 

A. Different types of Christianity 

1. Greek Christianity in the east—Latin in the west 

2. Effect of the Invasions on the Latin church—Formalism 

B. The Reformation in Spain, 1479-1516 

1. Reform under Ferdinand and Isabella—Ximines 

C. The Reformation in Italy—Savonarola, martyr, 1498 

D. The Reformation in France—Revival of Greek, 1450-1536 

III. The Reformation in the North 

A. Character—German conception of Christianity 

B. The Reformation in Germany, 1517-1555 

1. Luther and the Church: Monk, Wittenberg, Rome 

2. Charles V and the German Reformation—Peace of Augs¬ 
burg 


WORLD HISTORY 


(38) 497 


C. The spread of the Reformation in Europe, 16th century 

1. Switzerland: Zwingli and Calvin 

D. Results of the Reformation in the North 

1. Formation of independent state churches 

IV. The Religious Wars 

A. The revolt of the Netherlands, 1556-1648 

B. The Huguenot wars in France, 1560-1693 

C. The Thirty Years War, 1618-1648 

1. The cause and the theater of the war—three phases 

2. The Peace of Westphalia, 1648 

Questions 

1. State fully the old and new conceptions of the reformation and show 
how they differ. 

2. What countries of Europe were affected by the Reformation? 

3. How did the Reformation in the south of Europe differ from that 
in the north and to what was this difference due? 

4. When arid where did the southern Reformation begin, who was the 
promoter of it, and what was its character? 

5. What conditions in Italy were responsible for the agitation of Sav¬ 
onarola ? 

6. What was the content and the result of Savonarola’s preaching? 

7. What were the events in the life of Luther to 1517 which had a 
bearing on his later work as a reformer and what was the bearing 
of each? 

0 

8. What was a letter of indulgence? 

9. Why was Luther outlawed at Worms? (Give proof from the edict 
of Worms.) Was the edict against him enforced? 

10. Did Luther stand for freedom of conscience? 

11. How did the religious organization of Germany after 1555 differ 
from that before 1555 ? 

12. (a) According to Calvin, what accusations were brought against 
the Protestants and what was his reply to each? (b) Explain 
briefly Calvin’s doctrine of salvation, (c) What was Calvin’s position 
in Geneva and in what ways did he attempt to control the morals 
and religious belief of the people? 


498 (39) 


WORLD HISTORY 


13. What dogmas were proclaimed by the council of Trent and to what 
extent did they conflict with the teachings of Protestants as shown 
in the Confession of Augsburg ? 

14. (a) Who founded the order of the Jesuits? (b) What was the 
attitude of the papacy toward the order? (c) What was the organ¬ 
ization and what the aims of the order? 

15. State what you can find in the text concerning the relation of 
Charles V to the Reformation. 

16. How many wars of religion were there in Europe in the sixteenth: 
and seventeenth centuries ? 

17. Why did Philip II outlaw William the Silent? 

18. What rights did the Huguenots enjoy under the Edict of Nantes, 
1598? 

19. What were the terms of the Treaty of Westphalia? 

References 

Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 308-346; West, 329-338, 348-356; Web¬ 
ster, 257-278; Elson, 317-337, 344-348, 363-378; Robinson and Breasted, 
I, 578-638, 646-652; Hayes and Moon, 99-124; Robinson and Beard, II, 
17-30. 

THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

In the history of political liberty England stands in the forefront. 
The English parliamentary system is her greatest contribution. She 
furnished the second political revolution for democracy in modem times,, 
the Dutch having been the first to struggle for democracy against their 
Spanish oppressors. 

The English Revolution of the 17th century had a twofold character, 
religious and political. In religion the people were fighting for free¬ 
dom to worship as they pleased; in politics they were fighting for par¬ 
liamentary control of their government against the “Divine right of 
kings” idea as claimed by the Stuarts. The definite aim was to make 
the king responsible to parliament and to give parliament control of 
the finances. The struggle between parliament and Charles I was 
brought to a head when that body asked for his signature to The Peti¬ 
tion of Right. Charles however insisted on his right to collect tonnage 
and poundage and ship-money. This quarrel was complicated by re¬ 
ligious disputes. A long struggle followed and Charles attempted to 
seize the leaders of parliament when both sides took up arms and Civil 
War began, 1642. At first the king was successful but under Cromwell 
the peoples’ army was reorganized. With the help of the Scots the 
king was defeated and after trial executed, 1649. 


WORLD HISTORY 


(40) 499 


A mutilated parliament proclaimed England a Commonwealth but 
Cromwell was the real ruler. He failed to get on with his parliament, 
dissolved it and placed the supreme authority in his own hands. This 
government was called a Protectorate. At Cromwell's death his son 
attempted to rule but failed and in 1660 parliament called the king’s 
son to the throne as Charles II. After a troublesome reign Charles II 
was succeeded by his brother James II. James II renewed both the 
religious and political claims to which the people objected and he was 
dethroned by a “Peaceful Revolution” in 1688. His daughter, Mary, and 
her husband, William, of Holland, became joint rulers. They signed The 
Bill of Rights by which the English people disposed of the claim of the 
Stuarts to rule by divine right. At the same time they rid themselves 
of the rule of the Pope. 

Outline 

I. The English Revolution of the Seventeenth Century 

A. Place of England in the History of Political Liberty 

1. Great contribution to social organization 

2. The English Parliament 

B. Second great political revolution in modern history 

II. The Two Fold Character of the English Revolution 

A. Religious—State religion or freedom of worship 

B. Absolute government and parliamentary control 

1. Government by divine right 

2. Parliamentary government—Control of finance 

III. Charles I (1625-1649) and the Revolution 

A. Struggle of Charles and Parliament, 1625-1642 

1. Petition of Right, 1628 

2. Tonnage, poundage, ship-money 

3. Religous disputes—The Star Chamber and High Commis¬ 
sion 

4. The Long Parliament, 1640 • 

a. Attempt to seize the five members 

B. Civil War, 1642-1649 

1. Successes of the king 

2. Army reorganized by Cromwell—Solemn League and Cov¬ 
enant 

3. Defeat and capture of the king, 1646 

C. Trial and execution of the king, 1649 


500 (41) 


WORLD HISTORY 


l 


IV. The Commonwealth, 1649-1653 

A. Control by parliament 

B. Relation of the parliament to the army—The Independents 

V. The Protectorate, 1653-1660 

A. The Authority of Cromwell—Military government 

B. Defeat of the Irish, Scots and Dutch 

VI. Return of Charles II, 1660 

VII. James II and “The Glorious Revolution’’, 1688 
A. William and Mary—The Bill of Rights 

Questions 

1. What was the character of the English Revolution of the 17th cen¬ 
tury ? Explain fully. 

2. What is the place of England in the history of political liberty? 

3. What other revolutionary movement for democracy have you seen 
in modern history before the English? 

4. What was the theory of “Divine Right of Kings” ? Explain it 
fully. To what countries and what centuries does it belong? What 
recent ruler has claimed it? 

5. What were the specific causes of the struggle between Parliament 
and Charles I? 

6. Why did the people of northwest England stand by Charles and 
those of southeast England stand by Parliament? Were the rea¬ 
sons religious, economic or political? 

7. Was the government of Cromwell more liberal than that of Charles 
I? What was the difference between the two men? 

8. Why did the people of England recall Charles II? What was the 
moral state of England in the time of the Restoration? 

9. Why did James II have to flee his country? State the political and 
religious conditions. What is meant by the “bloodless revolution” 
of 1688? 

10. What was the Bill of Rights and state its provisions? 

11. Was the English Kingship hereditary or elective? 


WORLD HISTORY 


(42) 501 




References 

Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 322-327, 338-343, 351-364; Webster, 
281-295; West, 368-385; Elson, 379-401; Robinson and Breasted, I, 608- 
618, 639-645, 659-679; Hayes and Moon, 249-272; Robinson and Beard, 
II, 31-57. 


THE DOMINATION OF EUROPE BY FRANCE 

The autocracy which the Stuart kings could not force the English 
people to accept reached its highest development in France. It was 
characteristic of most of the monarchies of the continent in the seven¬ 
teenth and eighteenth centuries, in France, Russia, Prussia and Aus¬ 
tria. France was the dominating .power in Europe in this time. She 
attained this position through the centralization of her government under 
the guidance of Cardinal Richelieu at a time when the other states 
of Europe were weak. He played a role in the Thirty Years War which 
left France supreme in Europe. 

The organization of French society was such as to throw absolute 
power into the hands of the king. The government consisted of a king, 
Louis XIV, who acted as his own minister and who chose his own ad¬ 
visers. The official class was also dependent upon him. The Parlia¬ 
ments did not resist him as they had done with Louis XIII. The prov¬ 
inces had lost all local government, the central government having ab¬ 
sorbed it. At the Court the king and nobles lived in luxury and 
observed the strictest etiquette. Church and state were united. The 
Huguenots were suppressed by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes 
and many left France to the great detriment of her industries. Liter¬ 
ature and art flourished and were patronized by the king. The French 
Academy, founded by Richelieu, was encouraged. But Louis XIV lacked 
statesmanship and to gratify his ambitions to restore the natural boun¬ 
daries of France he plunged his country into four wars. This left France 
with a depleted population in a miserable condition under a heavy debt, 
with a reduced army and a balance of European powers formed against 
her. 

The Outline 

I. Absolute Monarchies of the 17th and 18th Centuries 

A. France—Russia—Prussia—Austria 

II. To What the Leadership of France in Europe Was Due 

A. Centralization of government in France—Richelieu 

B. Weakness of other European states 

C. Role played in the Thirty Years’ War 


502 (43) WORLD HISTORY 

III. Organization of French Society 

A. The Government 

1. The king his own minister—His advisers 

2. The official class 

3. The parliaments—Did not resist the king 

4. The provinces—Loss of local government 

B. The Court—The King and the Nobles 

C. Church and State 

1. Relation to Rome 

2. Unity of the church 

a. Suppression of the Huguenots, 1685 

D. Literature and art—The French Academy 

IV. The Struggle With Europe 

A. The war with Spain, 1667-1668 
1. Peace of Aachen 

B. War with Holland, 1672-1679 
1. Peace of Nymwegen 

C. War with Germany and her allies, 1688-1697 
1. Peace of Ryswick 

D. War of the Spanish succession, 1701-1714 
1. Peace of Utrecht 

E. Results of the wars 

1. Loss of prestige for France—Heavy debt 

2. Establishment of a balance of power in Europe 

Questions 

1. What is the chief characteristic of the period of European history 
between 1648 and 1748? 

2. Why is the history of France from 1643-1715 naturally* called the 
Age of Louis XIV? 

3. How was the role played by France in the 17th century aided by 
(1) geographical position, (with Paris as a center and a radius equal 
to the distance from Paris to Rome, describe a circle; how many 

4. (a) What was the theory concerning the right of Louis XIV to 
govern France? (b) How were the rights of individuals, cities 
European capitals lie outside the circumference?) (2) population, 
(3) political organization, (4) condition of the other countries of 
Europe ? 



WORLD HISTORY 


(44) 503 


and provinces protected against the arbitrary action of the king 
and his ministers? 

5. In what other ways than political was the Age of Louis XIV a 
striking period in French history? 

6. What was the attitude of the monarchy toward the Huguenots ? 
Give proof. 

7. Make an outline showing: (a) how many wars France engaged in 
during the Age of Louis XIV, (b) how long each one lasted, (c) how 
many periods of peace there were and length of each, (d) objects of 
the wars, and (e) results of each. 

References 

Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 366-373; Webster, 295-302; West, 386- 
394; Elson, 403-411; Robinson and Breasted, I, 681-695; Hayes and Moon, 
156-173, 228-234; Robinson and Beard, II, 58-72. 


THE RISE OF RUSSIA—PETER THE GREAT 
THE RISE OF PRUSSIA—FREDERICK THE GREAT 

18th CENTURY 

While Louis XIV was dazzling Europe with the splendor of his auto¬ 
cratic court another autocrat was building a state in the East. This 
was Peter the Great who changed Russia from an Asiatic to a European 
power. The geography of Russia has been largely responsible for her 
backward civilization. 

Before Peter the Great, Russia had been under the Mongols from 
Asia but was liberated by Ivan III in the 15th century. Christianity was 
introduced from Constantinople but there was no contact with western 
Europe until the time of Peter. When Peter came to the throne in 1672 
he saw Russia was much behind the other states of Europe. He set to 
work to introduce western civilization into his realm. He fought a war 
with Turkey; he visited the countries-of western Europe; he fought 
against Charles XII of Sweden gaining Baltic territory; he introduced 
social, economic, military and ecclesiastical reforms and built a new cap¬ 
ital, St. Petersburg, on the Baltic. The Empire of Peter the Great would 
hereafter have to be reckoned with by other European powers. Hence¬ 
forth Russia played a role in world history. 

We must turn to the study of another power not mentioned before 
but which also played a part in European affairs from this time for¬ 
ward—The Prussian State. It was built up by the Hohenzollerns with 
Brandenburg as a nucleus. The Great Elector laid the foundations of 
power. Prussia was inherited by the Hohenzollern family in 1618 and 
joined to Brandenburg. A later ruler made it all the kingdom of Prus- 


504 (45) 


WORLD HISTORY 


sia. Under Frederick the Great, who inherited a large army and treasury 
from his father, Prussia was expanded by the annexation of Silesia and 
large parts of Poland. Poland was partitioned by the ambitious rulers 
of Russia, Prussia and Austria and Prussia’s share was of great im¬ 
portance in building up that state. Frederick was an unusual character. 
He united his territories and organized his state as an autocratic ruler, 
yet he was a statesman and a man of culture. 

The Outline 

I. Rise of Russia 

A. Geography of Russia 

B. History of Russia before Peter the Great 

1. Russia under the Mongols 

2. Relation to Constantinople—Greek influence 

C. Peter the Great, 1689-1725 

1. Early history, 1672-1689 

2. War with Turkey, 1696 

3. Journey through the West, 1697-1698 

4. Northern War, 1700-1721—Charles XII 

a. Results: Russia receives Finland and all Swedish prov¬ 
inces 

5. Journey through the West, 1716-1717 

6. Reforms of Peter the Great—Nature of reforms 
a. Founding of St. Petersburg 

D. Importance of Peter’s Reign 

II. Rise of Prussia 

A. Formation of the Prussian state 

1. The Hohenzollerns in Brandenburg, 1415 
a. The great Elector, 1640-1688 

2. Acquisition of Prussia 

a. Conquest of Prussia by the German Knights, 13th cen¬ 
tury 

3. Prussia becomes a kingdom under Frederick I, 1701 

B. Expansion of Prussia under Frederick the Great, 1740-1786 

1. The father of Frederiek-William I, 1713-1740 

2. The Silesian wars and the annexation of Silesia, 1740-1763 

3. The first partition of Poland, 1772 

a. The state of Poland—Political anarchy 

b. The ambitions of Russia, Austria and Prussia 


WORLD HISTORY 


(46) 505 


C. Character of Frederick the Great 

1. Statesman—General—Autocratic ruler—Man of culture 

D. Contrast between the English and the Prussian state 

Questions 

1. What were the boundaries of Russia at the advent of Peter the 

. Great ? 

2. (a) To what open seas did Russia have access? (b) Why is access 
to an open sea important for a state? 

8 . What importance for the life of Russia do you see in the fact that 
its great river, the Volga, empties into the Caspian Sea? 

4 . (a) In what respects does the territory of Russia differ from that 
of southern and western Europe? (b) What effect did that have on 
historical development? 

5. With what three parts of the civilized world was Russia in con¬ 
tact and what had been their influence upon her up to the time of 
Peter the Great? 

6. (a) What territory was annexed by Peter? (b) How was it done? 
(c) Of what value was it to Russia? 

7. How did Peter Europeanize the Russian people? 

8. What opposition did he meet with and how did he overcome it? 

9. Make a map showing the extent of Russia at the accession of Peter 
the Great and the territory acquired by him. 

10. How did the Great Elector attract settlers into his territory? 

11. In what way did Elector Frederick increase the importance of the 
Hohenzollems, 1701? 

12. (a) In what ways was Germany influenced by France in the 18th 
century? (b) What were the opinions of Frederick concerning the 
respective values of German, French and English writers? 

13. (a) Give a characterization of Frederick-William I, (b) of his son 
Frederick and (c) give the reasons why they did not get on well 
together. 

14. (a) In what wars did Frederick the Great engage? (b) What were 
the causes of each? (c) When, where and with whom were they 
fought? (d) What were the results? 

15. What part had Frederick in the partition of Poland? How did 
Maria Theresa feel about her part in it? 


506 


(47) 


WORLD HISTORY 


16. Color a map showing the expansion of Prussia under Frederick the 
Great. 

17. Color a map to show the different partitions of Poland, giving dates. 

References 

Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 374-387; Webster, 302-318; Elson, 
415-425; West, 394-399; Hayes and Moon, 177-218; Hazen, 10-30; Robin¬ 
son and Beard, II, 73-99. 

REVIEW OUTLINE FOR THE SEMESTER 

I. The Area of the Civilized World 

A. All of Europe 

B. Asia: India, China, Japan 

C. America: The United States, Spanish Colonies, Canada 

D. Africa and Australia not within the circle 

II. The States of Europe 

A. The great states 

1. England—France—Prussia—Russia—Austria—Turkey 

B. Secondary states 

1. Spain—Sweden—Denmark—Holland—Portugal—Switzer¬ 
land—Poland 

2. Condition of Italy and Germany: Not united 

C. Europe still the center of the civilized world 
1. Central location of France in Europe 

III. Political Organization of the Peoples of Europe 

A. Absolute monarchies 

1. France—Prussia—Russia—Austria—Spain 

B. Constitutional Governments 

1. England—Holland—Switzerland—Geneva 

C. The reform period 

1. Enlightened monarchs: Russia—Prussia—Austria—Den¬ 

mark 

2. Abolition of the Jesuits 


WORLD HISTORY 


(48) 507 


D. Growth of democratic ideas—Responsibility of government to 
people 

1. Influence of England—Locke 

2. Influence of France—Voltaire—Montesquieu—Rousseau 

3. Struggle in France between the monarchy and the parlia¬ 
ment 

a. Hostile political points of view 

b. Control of finances 

c. Need of social reorganization 

d. Attempted reforms 

IV. International Relations 

A. The sovereign state 

1. Congresses and treaties 

2. Standing armies and alliances 

B. European problems * 

1. Holland: England—France—Austria—Prussia 

2. Rivalry of Prussia and Austria in Germany 

3. Poland: Prussia—Russia—Austria 

4. Turkey: Russia—Austria—The subject peoples 

5. The Baltic: Russia—Sweden 

C. Transportation and communication 

1. No advance in six thousand years 

2. Electricity and steam still to come 

D. Lack of international law and ethics 

1. Might makes right—Machiavelli 

2. Lack of international sympathy 

E. Peace projects—Saint-Pierre—Kant 

V. Culture and The Arts of Civilization 

A. Science—Geographical Discovery—Significant Inventions 

B. Art—Architecture—Language—Literature 

C. Religion—Education—Philosophy—Ethics 

D. Commerce—Industry—Economic Organization 

VI. The People 

A. Social stratification—Poverty and Serfdom—Ignorance of the 
masses—Home and family life—Great migrations 

VII. Significant Contributions to Civilization by Various Races and Peo¬ 
ples 



508 (49) 


WORLD HISTORY 


A SURVEY OF WORLD HISTORY 
Second Half-Year 

I. Colonial Expansion and the Formation of the United States. 

II. The French Revolution. 

III. The Napoleonic Empire. 

IV. Reaction and Revolution. 

V. The Industrial Revolution. 

VI. Unification of Great States. 

1. The Unification of Italy 

2. The American Struggle for Unity 

3. The Unification of Germany 

VII. Development of Great European States. 

1. Great Britain 

VIII. Development of Great European States. 

2. France 

3. Germany 

IX. Development of Great European States. 

4. Italy 

5. Austria-Hungary 

6. Russia 

X. Colonial Expansion and the Unification of World History. 

XI. International Relations and the Unification of World History. 

1. Origins of the World War 

XII. Turkey and the Eastern Question. 

2. Origins of the World War. 

XIII. The World War. 

1. Immediate Causes 

XIV. The World War. 

2. The Course of the War 

XV. The Paris Peace Conference and the League of -Nations. 

XVI. The World Today. 

1. Recent Events of World Significance 

2. Western Civilization 


WORLD HISTORY 


(50) 509 


COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 
and the 

FORMATION OF THE UNITED STATES 

The many long and disastrous wars among the monarchs of Europe 
can be explained, not by conditions in Europe, but by the far flung co¬ 
lonial interests of the warring rulers. The dramatic struggle, begin¬ 
ning when the explorers added vast realms to the known world, closed 
with England’s successful wresting from Spain, Holland and lastly 
France, great colonial possessions. These colonial wars were wars of 
autocracy and aristocracy influenced by the Mercantile theory. Trad¬ 
ing companies played a significant part in colonial enterprise. Eng¬ 
land emerged from the fray the “Mistress of the Seas”. 

Out of these struggles of autocrats for colonial power, and the 
struggles of the people against autocracy, there appeared a New State 
in a New World—The United States—destined to play a great role in 
World History. 

North America was colonized by Spanish, French, Dutch and Eng¬ 
lish on the Atlantic seaboard. These central settlements formed the 
thirteen colonies which in turn became the nucleus of the new nation. 
The English conquered the Dutch in New York and New Jersey and 
later the French in Canada and on the Mississippi. 

The character of the colonists differed; for illustration, the settlers 
in New England were men who came to America seeking political and 
religious liberty and were of the middle class. The settlers in Vir¬ 
ginia came more for economic reasons, and belonged to a higher social 
class; they soon became plantation owners and developed customs differ¬ 
ent from those of the New Englanders. 

The conditions of frontier life made for democracy and self-gov¬ 
ernment and although the colonists were bound to England by ties of 
interest and sentiment, they developed a growing desire for freedom 
in government and independence in industrial enterprise. The colonial 
wars had the effect of giving them self confidence. 

When England attempted to tax the colonies and to restrict indus¬ 
trial and commercial enterprise, she met with great resistance even 
though acting within her legal rights as recognized at that time. The 
colonies carried on the same struggle against arbitrary government that 
the English people began in their civil war of the previous century. 
The colonists used three methods of resistance: (a) legal methods, 
making protests and concessions; (b) the appeal to force, holding colon¬ 
ial congresses and raising troops; (c) a declaration of their inde¬ 
pendence. A war followed which merged into a world war with most 
of the countries of Europe engaged in it. In this war (in the American 
colonies) George Washington took the leading part, and led the colon¬ 
ists to victory (1781). Peace was made in 1783. After some experi¬ 
mentation in government a federal government was formed and George 


510 (51) 


WORLD HISTORY 


Washington became its first president. The formation of this new gov¬ 
ernment was the first great experiment in democracy since the time 
of Greece, 2000 years before, and was destined to play a great part in 
preserving democracy to the world later. 

\ 

The Oultine 

I. Colonial Empires 

A. Motives for Colonization—Colonial policies—Trading companies 
—Mercantilism 

B. Rivalry for Colonial Empire 

1. Conflict of claims in North America: Spanish, Dutch,. 
French, English 

2. The French and English struggle for India—Clive and 
Dupleix 

3. The French and English struggle for North America—A 
World Struggle 

4. English gains in the wars ending with the Seven Years' 
War 

6. Extent of British Colonial Empire 

II. Revolt of American Colonies 

A. The Thirteen Colonies—The Atlantic Seaboard 

B. Character of the Colonies 

1. Typical examples: New England, Virginia 

C. Expansion Westward: Frontier life, freedom, democracy 

D. Influence of Colonial Wars 

E. Revolt from England 

1. Ties of interest and sentiment 

2. Part of larger struggle against arbitrary government 

3. Continuation of civil war of previous century 

4. English restrictions and taxation 

5. Resistance of the Colonies 

a. Legal methods: Protests, petitions, refusal to pay 

b. The appeal to force: Raising troops 

c. The meeting of the Colonial Congresses 

d. The Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776 

F. The Revolutionary War. 

1. Brings on a civil war in the colonies—The Tories 

2. French form an alliance with the colonies—Lafayette 


WORLD HISTORY 


(52) 511 


3. Merges into an European War—France, Spain and Holland 
against England 

4. Results of the War and the Treaty of Paris 

5. The role of George Washington 

G. Significance of the American Revolution 

1. A continuation of the English Revolutions 

2. “The Right of Revolution” 

3. The “unalienable rights” of man against special privilege 

4. Example to other peoples 

III. The Formation of the United States 

A. The failure of confederation 

B. The Constitutional Convention—The Constitution 

C. A Federation of States 

IV. Significance of the New State in the World’s History 

Questions 

1. How was India made a part of the British Colonial Empire? 

2. What were the gains of England in the Seven Years’ War? 

3. Make a map showing the conflicting colonial claims in North Amer¬ 
ica. 

4. What was the character of each colony and how was that character 
determined ? 

5. By what steps did the English gain control of all the colonies? 

■6. (a) Explain why we call the 18th century struggle between Eng¬ 

land and France a world struggle, (b) What did we name that 
war and how did it result? 

7. (a) What influence had frontier life on self-government? (b) What 
ties bound these colonies to the mother country? 

8. What relation did the struggle of the thirteen colonies bear to the 
European situation? 

9. What three methods did the colonies use in gaining their separa¬ 
tion from England? Explain each. 

10. The American War for Independence is sometimes called a civil 
war, sometimes a world war. Explain each term in its connection. 

11. What was the role of George Washington in the establishment of 
the new nation? 


512 


(53) 


WORLD HISTORY 


12. What difficulties and objections were met in the organization of 

the new government? 

13. What was the significance of the New State in the world’s history ? 

References 

Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 389-401; Webster, 320-344; West, 

386-391, 398-401; Elson, 426-432; Hayes and Moon, 221-244, 274-292;. 

Robinson and Beard, II, 101-118. 

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

The 18th century revolutions were protests against the old autoc¬ 
racy and privilege. Among these was the French Revolution, which was 
one of the most important events in all history. It was the abolition 
of arbitrary government and privilege. It began with the transforma¬ 
tion of the old Estates-general to the National Assembly and after the 
July revolution of 1789 left the government in the hands of the middle 
class. The peasants sought to abolish all privilege by burning the 
feudal castles. The assembly then passed decrees abolishing titles and 
privilege. 

' The next task of the assembly was to form a constitution. This was 
done by passing decrees and putting them into effect as the needs of 
the time required. The more important of these changes were: the 
reorganization of France by abolishing provinces and forming depart¬ 
ments and districts, by replacing parlements with courts and juries, 
by seizing church lands and forming a civil constitution for the clergy; 
the unification of France by establishing equality before the law and by 
holding federations in Paris at which was taken the oath to support 
the new government. 

There soon developed opposition to this new regime on the part of 
the clergy, the emigrant nobles, and the king and queen. The king and 
queen fled in June, 1791, hoping to get help from foreign rulers and 
become reestablished in their power, but they were brought back. The 
constitution was finished in September, 1791, and the king set free to 
sign it. He signed, but his opposition did not cease. Due to the con¬ 
tinued opposition of the king, the queen and the clergy to the Revolu¬ 
tion (which had now been accomplished) France was brought into war 
with Europe. 

The decrees abolishing privilege interfered with the rights of the 
German princes in Alsace and of the Pope in Avignon as well as of the 
emigrant nobles. By Austria’s interference on this account, in French 
internal affairs, war was forced upon France. At first the war went 
against the French and on August 10, 1792, they suspended the king 
hoping to put an end to the opposition which centered in him. In Sep¬ 
tember the people broke open the prisons and massacred a number of 


WORLD HISTORY 


(54) 513 


priests who were in opposition to the Revolution. Following- a French 
victory at Valmy, a convention was called to form a new constitution 
for France as a republic. The king was tried and executed; France 
was invaded by Austria and Prussia; a revolutionary government was 
set up which attempted to put down all opposition. The Reign of Ter¬ 
ror followed. The victorious French made peace with Prussia, Spain 
and Holland and in 1795 established a new government—the Directorate. 


I. 


Outline 

The Old Regime 

A. Monarchy—A Despotism—Louis XVI 

* 

B. The Privileged Classes—The First and Second Estates: The 
nobles, the clergy • 

C. The Unprivileged Classes—The Third Estate: The bour¬ 
geoisie, the artisans, the peasants 

D. Spirit of Reform—Torgot’s Ministry—Necker’s Report 


II. The Transformation of France 

A. The Estates—General becomes the National Assembly—The 
Oath of the Tennis Court 

1. The making of the Constitution 

a. Abolition of feudal privilege, Aug. 4, 1789 

b. Abolition of arbitrary government and privilege 

c. Reorganization: Departments and districts, parlements 

d. The Church—Church Lands—The Civil Constitution ol 
the Clergy 

e. Declaration of the Rights of Man 

f. Opposition to the Assembly’s Action 

(1) Emigrant nobles 

(2) Flight of the king 

(3) Nonjuring clergy 

(4) The Radicals 

2. The Constitution of 1791—Legislative Assembly—Limited 
Monarchy 

III. The Struggle with Europe 

A. War with Austria and Prussia 

1. How Austria forced war 

2. French Failure 

3. Suspension of king—The First French Republic 

4. Election of a National Convention 

5. September Massacres and the Battle of Valmy 

6. Execution of the king 


514 


(55) 


WORLD HISTORY 


B. War with European Monarchs 

C. The Reign of Terror 

1. Parties in the National Convention 

2. Domestic Insurrection and its Control 

D. Peace with Prussia, Spain and Holland, 1795 

IV. Establishment of the Directorate, October, 1795 

Questions 

1. (a) Why did Calonne call the notables? (b) Why did Calonne’s 
plan fail? 

2. How did the Parlement of Paris force the king to call the Estates- 
General ? 

3. What two fundamental questions were raised in connection with 
the formation of the Estates and what was their significance? 

4. What abuses were abolished by the decree of August 4, 1789? 

5. Make a list of the rights of man contained in the declaration passed 
by the assembly and state how many of them lie at the founda¬ 
tion of modern civilized society. 

6. What was the organization of the church under the civil constitu¬ 
tion ? 

7. (a) How did the assembly and the people of Paris conduct them¬ 
selves at the time of the king’s flight? (b) What was the signifi¬ 
cance of their action? 

S. (a) What action did the emperor of Germany and the king of Prus¬ 
sia take at Pillnitz in August, 1791, and (b) what was the sig¬ 
nificance of it? 

9. Did Louis XVI support the new government in good faith? Prove 
your statement. 

10. What two groups of Frenchmen were hostile to the revolution and 
how did the assembly treat them? What was the attitude of the 
king toward the decrees against them? 

11. Why did the legislative assembly declare war against Austria? 

12. Why was Louis executed? Was he guilty of the charges brought 
against him? 

13. (a) What was the revolutionary government? (b) How did it dif¬ 
fer from the government established by the National Assembly? 
(c) What brought it into existence? (d) How long did it last? 


WORLD HISTORY 


(56) 515 


14. (a) What was the “Reign of Terror”? (b) What was the differ¬ 
ence between the revolutionary government and the “Reign of Ter¬ 
ror”? (c) Why did it begin and why did it cease? 

15. (a) What was the main task of the revolutionary government? (b) 
Did it accomplish this task? (Give proof.) 


References 

Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 419-449; West, 404-431; Webster, 
346-387; Elson, 433-471; Hayes and Moon, 295-331; Robinson and 
Beard, II, 173-249; Hazen, 31-150. 


THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE 

The Directory appointed as general of the French army in Italy, 
Napoleon Bonaparte, a young Italian soldier, who had distinguished him¬ 
self in defending the Convention. He concluded a successful war in 
Italy, gaining great advantages for France in the Treaty of Campo For- 
mio. Napoleon misrepresented his campaign in Egypt, overthrew the 
Directory, effected a coup d’etat, and changed the government from a 
directory to a consulate in which he became first consul. He reor¬ 
ganized the government of France in 1800, successfully conducted 
wars against Germany and Italy, and in 1802 became consul for 
life. In domestic affairs, as consul, he made a treaty with the pope which 
revoked some of the provisions of the civil constitutions, permitted the 
emigrant nobles to return, developed the Napoleonic code, continued the 
aggressions in Italy, renewed war with England, and established himself 
as emperor, 1804. The next year Napoleon began a series of wars that 
ended only with his final defeat at Waterloo. He invaded Germany, 
forced a war with Prussia and promulgated the Berlin Decrees and the 
continental blockade. The attempt to enforce the blockade lead to events 
causing his downfall. 

Russia entered the field against him, but was defeated and forced 
to make the Peace of Tilsit, 1817. In 1808 he seized the throne of Spain, 
making his brother, Joseph, king. At this point England entered the con¬ 
test and sent Wellington to Portugal in 1809. Napoleon again defeated 
Austria. Here he sued for the hand of Marie Louisa, the daughter of the 
Austrian Emperor, divorced his wife Josephine, and married the Austrian 
Princess in 1810. In 1812 he made a daring, but disastrous, attempt to 
conquer Russia. Disaster now followed upon disaster. The nations of 
Europe gathered their armies on the field of Leipzig, defeated him, in¬ 
vaded France and forced his abdication in 1814. He was banished to the 
isle of Elba, from which he escaped, returned to Europe and to his final 
defeat at the hands of the Duke of Wellington in the famous battle of 
Waterloo. He was banished to St. Helena. Here ended his career. 


516 (57) 


WORLD HISTORY 


Meantime the statesmen of Europe met in the Congress of Vienna 
and attempted the restoration of the dynasties and the readjustment of 
territorial boundaries in Europe. 


Outline 

I. The Directory, 1795-1799 

A. Early history of Napoleon 

B. Napoleon in Italy, 1796—Treaty of Campo Formio 

C. Napoleon in Egypt, 1798-1799 

D. Overthrow of the Directory 

II. The Consulate, 1799-1804 

A. Campaign of 1800 in Germany and Italy—Marengo—Hohen- 
linden 

B. Peace of Amiens, 1802 

C. Organization and government of France 

D. Napoleon Consul for life, Aug. 1802 

1. Code Napoleon 

2. Return of Emigrant Nobles 

3. Restoration of Church 

4. Internal Improvements—Finances 

5. War with England 

6. Sells Louisiana to the United States 

III. The Empire, 1804-1814 

• A. Change from Republic to Empire 

B. Napoleon’s Ambition 

C. Imperial wars—Napoleonic wars 

1. Hostility of England—Trafalgar, 1805 

2. Invasion of Germany, 1805: Ulm, Austerlitz, Treaty of 
Pressburg 

3. War with Prussia, 1806: Jena—Russia, 1807; Friedland— 
Treaties of Tilsit 

4. Economic warfare against England: Berlin Decree, 
Continental Blockade, Plight of U. S., Jefferson’s Embar¬ 
go, Freedom of the Seas 

5. War with Spain—English Interference—Wellington 


WORLD HISTORY 


(58) 517 


6. Austria: Aspern, Wagram, Treaty of Vienna—Divorce 
of Josephine—Marriage of Marie Louisa 

7. Invasion of Russia—Disastrous Retreat 

D. U. S. drawn into European conflict—War of 1812 

E. Extent of Napoleonic Empire 

F. The War of Liberation—“The Battle of the Nations”(Leipzig) 

G. Abdication of Napoleon 

IV. The Hundred Days, 1815 

A. Return of Napoleon 

B. Battle of Waterloo, June 18 

C. Napoleon at St. Helena 

V. The Congress of Vienna, 1814-1815—Reorganization of Europe 

Questions 

1. Describe the character of Napoleon, using material from your text. 

2. The Italian campaign: (a) What was the condition of the French 
army when Napoleon took command? (b) In what ways did 
Napoleon show his ability as a general and statesman? (c) What 
indications do you find of Napoleon’s ambition, his unscrupulousness 
and his disregard of law? (d) What did France gain by the treaty 
of Campo Formio? 

3. The Egyptian campaign: What were the objects, principal events 
and outcome of this campaign? 

4 . Describe the way in which Napoleon became first consul and indi¬ 
cate in what way it was illegal. 

5 . Color a map to show (a) French territory, (b) territory controlled 
by Napoleon, (c) by allied states, (d) states under French influ¬ 
ence in 1810. 

6. Why did Napoleon not invade England in 1805 ? 

7 . What is the value of the bulletins Napoleon issued as sources for 
his campaigns? 

8. How did the Holy Roman Empire come to an end? Review all of 
the steps in the fall and restoration of the Roman Empire from its 
beginning. 



WORLD HISTORY 


518 (59) 

9. What was the cause of the continental blockade? What methods 
were used on the two sides? How long did it last? 

10. What was the imperial catechism and what were some of the extra¬ 
ordinary questions in it? 

11. What reasons did Napoleon give (a) for seizing Spain,(b) for annex¬ 
ing Holland and the Hanseatic towns? 

12. (a) Why did Napoleon invade Russia? (b)What was the condi¬ 
tion of his army when he recrossed the Niemen? (c) What was the 
result of the Russian campaign? 

13. What was the “War of Liberation”, and what was its result? 

14. What were the terms of Napoleon’s abdication ? 

15. How did the allies treat him when he returned from Elba? 

16. What was the cause of Napoleon’s second fall? 

17. Were the results of Napoleon’s domination in Europe beneficial or 
injurious ? 

References 

Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 450-474; Webster, 387-408; West, 
432-447; Elson, 472-491; Hayes and Moon, 335-366; Robinson and 
Beard, II, 250-312; Hazen, 152-247. 


REACTION AND REVOLUTION 

The Congress of Vienna was a triumph for anti-revolutionists. The 
statesmen who met there ignored the fact that it was the peoples of 
Europe who overthrew Napoleon. Disregarding the aspirations of nation¬ 
ality, they rearranged the map of Europe to suit themselves, and equally 
disregarding reformed tendencies, restored the old dynasties. An alli¬ 
ance, known as the Quadruple Alliance, was formed by Austria, Prussia, 
Russia and England to insure Europe against another attack by France. 
The real purpose of this alliance was to stamp out liberal government 
and suppress revolutions. After the Protocol of Troppau England with¬ 
drew. The Holy Alliance, ostensibly formed to conduct Europe’s affairs 
on Christian principles, was never taken seriously except by Tsar Alex¬ 
ander. 

In France Louis XVIII was restored to the throne, but required to 
grant a charter which preserved to the French many of the principles 
they had fought for in the Revolution. Allied troops were kept in France 
till she met her obligations in 1818. In Germany Metternich became and 
remained for twenty years the ruling spirit. A loose confederation of 
princes was formed with a diet meeting at Frankfort. Of this diet Aus¬ 
tria had the presidency and Metternich the ruling voice. Agitation between 


WORLD HISTORY 


(60) 519 


liberals in the press and the student societies was repressed. Reaction¬ 
ary policies precipitated in 1820 a series of revolutions in the south of 
Europe, in Spain, Portugal, Italy, Sicily, Naples and Piedmont. Peoples 
rose in revolt. In all these countries the revolutions were put down by 
French and Austrian troops. The people of Greece revolted against the 
Turks in 1821 and with the help of European powers gained their inde¬ 
pendence in 1829. Then followed reaction. In 1830 another series of 
revolutions broke out. In France Charles X was driven out and Louis 
Philippe became king. Belgium gained independence from Holland, and 
Prussia, rising in revolt against Russia, was annihilated as a nation and 
became a province of Russia. Another period of reaction followed. 

In 1848 revolutions broke out all over Europe;—in Italy, in France, 
where the demand was for an electoral reform and where a republic was 
proclaimed, in the German States of Austria and Prussia. The Revolu¬ 
tions temporarily succeeded. Metternich fell. An assembly, made up of 
liberals, met at Frankfort but it was dispersed by Austrian and Prussian 
forces. 

In every state reaction triumphed. But in spite of this the very 
foundations of European society had been shaken by the revolution of 
1848. 

In France the republic elected as president Louis Napoleon, who by 
a coup d’etat made himself Emperor. Thus ended the revolutionary 
period of the 19th century—in complete reaction. 

Outline 

I. The Congress of Vienna 

A. Triumph of revolutionary ideas 

B. Rearrangement of map of Europe—Disregard for national¬ 
ities 

C. Restoration of the Dynasties 

II. The Holy Alliance Ineffective 

III. Metternich and His System 

A. The Quadruple Alliance 

B. Reaction in Germany 

1. Confederation and diet 

2. Agitation and repression 

C. Armed interventions—Repression of revolutions 

D. English and American opposition—The Monroe Doctrine* 
1823 


520 (61) 


WORLD HISTORY 


IV. The Restoration in France 

A. Louis XVIII—The Charter 

V. The Mediterranean Revolutions 

A. In Spain and Portugal—Latin American Revolutions, Mon¬ 
roe Doctrine 

B. In Italy: Naples, Sicily, Piedmont 

C. Congresses of the Powers 

D. Intervention—Suppression of the revolutions 

E. The Greek Revolutions—War for Independence 

1. Turkish rule 

2. English and French and Russian Aid 

VI. The Revolutions of 1830 and Their Influence 

A. In France: Fall of Charles X, Constitutionalism preserved 

B. Belgium separated from Holland 

C. Polish insurrection—Absorption by Russia 

D. Autocracy strong in Eastern Europe—Democracy growing in 
West 

VII. The Revolutions of 1848 

A. In France 

1. Demand for Electoral Reform 

2. Fall of the Orleans Monarchy 

3. The Second Republic 

B. In Italy—Mazimie 

C. In the Austrian Empire 

1. Fall of Metternich—Constitution 

2. Vienna Radicals—Hungarian Republic Suppressed 

D. In Germany 

1. The Frankfort Assembly 

2. Austria and the Confederation 

E. The Reaction and how far.it went 

VIII. The Empire of Napoleon III 

A. The Constituent Assembly—The Republic of 1848 

B. Louis Napoleon President—The Coup d’ Etat, Dec., 1851 

IX. Character of Period—Reaction and Revolution—Revolt and Re¬ 
pression—Democracy vs. Autocracy 


WORLD HISTORY 


(62) 521 


Questions 

1. Color a map to show the adjustment of boundary lines in Europe 
as made by the congress of Vienna. 

2. (a) Compare this map with that for Europe in 1810 and state who 

had gained and who had lost territory in 1815. (b) What role did 

Talleyrand play at Vienna? 

3 . (a) Did Europe have any political unity after the fall of Napoleon? 
(b) What was the practical value of the Holy Alliance? 

4. (a) What kind of a government did France get through the charter 

of 1815? (b) Was it better or worse than that before 1789? 

5 . (a) What kind of a political organization did Germany get in 1815? 
(b*) Who was dissatisfied with it? (c) What two things did the 
German people want? (d) How were they prevented from getting 
them ? 

6. (a) In how many and in which of the Mediterranean countries did 

revolutions break out in 1820 and 1821? (b) What were the causes 

and results? (c) How were the revolutions suppressed? (d) Were 
any successful? If so, how? 

7 . (a) In what parts of Europe did the revolution of 1830 break out? 
(b) What did the revolutionists want? (c) Did they get it? 

8. What was the general character of the period 1815-1830? 

9. (a) W T hen did the revolution of 1848 begin? (b) What countries 
were affected by it? (c) In what order? (d) How long did it last? 

10. (a) In what states was the struggle one for constitutional rights? 
(b) In what for independence? (c) In what for both? 

11 . (a) In how many states was the revolution successful at first? 
(b) What did the revolutionists do? (c) In how many states did it 
finally fail and what were the causes? 

12. (a) What government had the most important part in the work of 
suppressing the revolution? (b) In how many states did it inter¬ 
vene? (c) What did it do? (d) Why did it do it? 

13 . What modern revolutionary movement began to show itself in France 
in the Revolution of 1848? 

References 

Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 476, 486, 499, 506; Webster, 410-447; 
West, 448-464,480-491; Elson, 492-544; Hayes and Moon, 421-470; 
Robinson and Beard, II, 314-408; Hazen, 249-324. 


522 (63) 


WORLD HISTORY 


THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 

The political revolutions of the early 19th century were significant 
events in the political history of the world but had little effect on the 
daily routine life of the masses. A little before 1800 there began an epic 
movement destined to make civilization immensely complex and to compli¬ 
cate greatly the whole problem of human liberty. The initiators of this 
great world revolution were not monarchs, generals, statesmen, orators, 
but scientists, inventors, business men, engineers. 

“While the spectacular drama of the French Revolution and the 
Napoleonic Wars was being enacted on the Continent of Europe, some¬ 
thing occurred in England that in the long run has made the siege of 
the Bastille and the battle of Waterloo seem almost insignificant by com¬ 
parison. This something was the Industrial Revolution. ' No other event 
in all modern history has made more tremendous changes in the life of 
the common man, or opened up wider vistas of human progress, or caused 
keener suffering and discontent. 

Try to imagine what present-day civilization would be like without 
machines and factories, without railways, automobiles, or steamboats, 
without telegraphs, telephones, or cheap newspapers, without moving 
pictures, without farm machinery—and you will begin to have just a 
faint idea of what the Industrial Revolution meant to the world, what it 
means to you and me today. Had it never occurred, you would have to 
travel by stagecoach or on horseback or in a slow sailing vessel; your 
clothes would be of ‘homespun’ cloth, woven by hand from thread spun 
on the old-fashioned spinning wheel; this book would have been printed 
by a hand-press such as Benjamin Franklin used, and would have been 
very much more expensive than it is; all the things you use, from shoes 
to pencils, would be laboriously made by hand. There would be fewer 
and smaller cities, fewer and more expensive books and newspapers, 
fewer millionaires, fewer opportunities to make money. Our political and 
social problems would be altogether different from what they are. Most 
of us would be toiling on farms or working with hand-tools or turning 
the spinning wheel or weaving on the hand-loom, as our ancestors did 
in colonial times. 

The Industrial Revolution may be defined as a fundamental change 
or series of changes in the methods of producing cloth, iron and steel, 
and other manufactured goods. A brief list of its most striking features 
will perhaps help the student to understand the narrative that follows. 
(1) Machines driven by steam engines or by water power were invented 
to take the place of human labor in manufacturing cloth and other com¬ 
modities. (2) The age of iron and coal was ushered in by a long series 
of inventions which made it possible to produce and use coal, iron, and 
steel on a large scale. These materials had been comparatively little 
used before the eighteenth century. (3) The invention of the steam 
locomotive and the steamboat revolutionized transportation and com- 



WORLD HISTORY 


(64) 523 


merce. (4) Millions upon millions of working people who had previously 
labored in their own homes with hand-looms or simple tools, now left their 
homes to work as wage earners in the factories, mines, and mills, which 
had hitherto been very few but speedily became exceedingly numerous. 
This change produced almost incredible suffering and hardship at first, 
and also intense dissatisfaction, among the working classes. (5) Cap¬ 
italism gained immensely in power and importance, as the new fac¬ 
tories, mines, and railways were owned and controlled by capitalist em¬ 
ployers. (6) The old restrictions imposed upon industry and trade by 
the guilds and by mercantilist statesmen were swept away to clear the 
field for free business competition. This, however, was a temporary 
phase. (7) Industry and commerce expanded enormously, soon over¬ 
shadowing agriculture, flooding the market with machine-made goods 
at low prices, and raising the standard of living. (8) Population, in¬ 
creasing at an unheard-of-rate, was more and more concentrated in 
industrial and commercial cities, until the majority of the population 
were no longer to be found living in the country, but in overgrown and 
overcrowded cities. 

It is more difficult to attach a date and a label to such a change 
than to political or military events. Economic history has no Waterloo, 
no peace treaties, no elections, to serve as milestones. Machines are 
not made overnight; often they are the product of many experiments 
and combine features of preceding inventions; and once they are ‘in¬ 
vented’ they must ordinarily go through a long process of improve¬ 
ment before they become thoroughly successful. Therefore it is bet¬ 
ter to say that the Industrial Revolution had its beginnings in the sev¬ 
enteenth century or earlier, that its progress became very noticeable 
in England during the second half of the eighteenth century and still 
more so in the nineteenth century, and that during the nineteenth and 
twentieth centuries it has been communicated first to one country and 
then to another, throughout the world. In this chapter we shall tell the 
story of the Industrial Revolution in England from its beginnings down 
through the great changes of the eighteenth century and on into the 
first half of the nineteenth century.”* 

In its human aspects the Industrial Revolution presents an interest¬ 
ing phase. In the 19th century the population of Europe grew from 
175,000,000 to over 400,000,000. The population of the U. S. was about 
5,000,000. Any reversion to the earlier forms of production must be 
stated in terms of human lives. 

Outline 

I. Few Tools and Practically no Machines in Ancient Times 
A. Primitive methods persist thru the 18th century 


♦Hayes and Moon—Modern History, 369-372. 




524 (65) 


WORLD HISTORY 


B. Progress depends largely on invention 

C. The primitive method is handwork 

II. Development of Invention—Machinery, 1750-1850 

A. Improvements in cloth making 

1. Spinning and weaving machinery 

2. The cotton gin 

3. The sewing machine 

B. Steam becomes the servant of man—The steam engine—The 
steam locomotive—The steam boat 

C. Coal and iron come into wider use—Mining and smelting 

D. Labor-saving farm machinery—The McCormick Reaper—The 
iron plow 

E. Improvement in Communication—Telegraph—Rotary Print¬ 
ing Press 

III. The Domestic System Changes to the Factory System 

A. The working classes suffer 

1. Woman and Child Labor 

2. Long hours and low wages 

3. Poor housing—The slums 

B. The capitalist classes profit 
1. Capital controls industry 

IV. The Mercantile Theory gives way to “Laissez faire” 

V. The Origin of Labor Unions—Labor Legislation 

* y 

VI. The Rise of Socialism—Karl Marx—International Aspects 

VII. The Industrial Revolution Produces Great Social Changes 

A. Concentration of population at industrial centers—The Rise 
of Cities 

B. Transportation improves—Commerce expands 

C. Means of rapid communication develop—Ideas spread rapidly 

D. Migration of peoples is facilitated 

E. An aristocracy of wealth is produced 


I 


WORLD HISTORY (66) 525 

F. Population increased with increase of production 

G. Commerce and industry become large factors in international 
politics 

Industrial Revolution Only Well Begun by 1850 

Questions 

1. Why was primitive work handwork? 

2. Explain how progress depends on invention. 

3. (a) What inventions initiated the tremendous development of the 
textile industry? (b) When were they invented? (e) Who were 
the inventors? 

4. List the important inventions and developments in the use of iron, 
coal. Why should this period be called “The Age of Coal and 
Iron”? 

5. How did the Industrial Revolution affect commerce, agriculture, 
manufacturing ? 

6. What evils accompanied the Industrial Revolution? Compare the 
distress accompanying the Industrial Revolution with that accom¬ 
panying political revolutions. 

7. Compare the exploitation of labor with the exploitation of the serf 
under the feudal regime. 

8. Why is the Industrial Revolution so important in world history? 

9. What was the reason for the formation of labor unions? 

10. How did the new system of production affect the theories of eco¬ 
nomics? Compare Mercantilism with the “Laissez faire” theory. 

11. Compare the following definitions with the one given in the intro¬ 
duction of this section, “Industrial Revolution .... those wholesale 
changes in manufacturing, transportation, and other industries, 
which, within a century and a half, .... transformed modern 
life”.* 

“Suddenly .... a series of ingenious devices were invented, which 
in a few generations eclipsed the achievements of ages and revo¬ 
lutionized every branch of business. This change is known as the 
Industrial Revolution.”! 

12. What were the chief changes brought about in England? 

13. Why does a complex commercial and industrial system require 
money and banks? 

♦Webster—World History, 581. 

tRobinson. Breasted and Smith—A General History of Europe, 488. 





vni. 





526 


(67) 


WORLD HISTORY 


14. What is socialism? Are the theories practical? Why? 

15. Show how the Industrial Revolution is still in progress. 

References 

Webster, 581-592, 605-614, 616-623; Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 
487-498; Elson, 502-511; West, 465-479; Hayes and Moon, 369-416; 
Robinson and Beard, II, 357-376. 


THE UNIFICATION OF GREAT STATES 
The Unification of Italy 

The revolutions of 1820, 1830 and 1848 failed to free Italy from for¬ 
eign dominations. In 1852 Cavour, as prime minister of Sardinia, began 
a series of extensive military and economic reforms. He saw that Italy 
must gain recognition from and form alliances with European powers 
if she were ever able to free herself from domination of foreign rulers. 
He gained the former by participation in the Crimean War, the latter 
by an understanding with Napoleon III. In a war with Austria, Italy 
won Lombardy, but failed to win Venice through Napoleon’s failure to 
keep his promise. Following this victorious war the central duchies an¬ 
nexed themselves to Italy, and Savoy and Nice went to France. 

In May, 1860, Garibaldi made his memorable conquest of Naples 
and Sicily and turned the results of his conquest over to Victor Emman¬ 
uel. Victor Emmanuel completed the conquest and the kingdom of Italy 
was proclaimed on March 17, 1861. 

The Struggle of the United States for Unity 

The struggle for unity and nationality was one of the great move¬ 
ments of the 19th century. The American struggle for unity differed 
from that of Italy in that there were no foreign rulers to drive out. 
It was a struggle to maintain rather than to achieve unity. The prob¬ 
lems inherent in the formation of the United States—States Rights vs. 
Federal Supremacy, Negro Slavery, geographical conditions favoring 
industries in the north and agriculture in the south, the type of orig¬ 
inal settlers, the attachment of people to local institutions rather than 
to national—tended toward dissolution. The arresting of these dissolv¬ 
ing tendencies was the function of the Civil War and the problem of 
the Reconstruction. 


The Unification of Germany 

All through the middle ages there had been no Germany, but many 
German states. After the Congress of Vienna the princes of the German 
states, in an effort to get some kind of unity, formed a Confederation. 


WORLD HISTORY 


(68) 527 


Austria remained the controlling state in this Confederation until Prus¬ 
sia became the natural leader. Prussia’s attempts to achieve unity failed 
because of Austria. Bismarck became prime minister of Prussia. In 
violation of the constitution and in defiance of the parliament, he de¬ 
vised means for developing the army. 

The military machine built up by von Roon and von Moltke made 
the Blood and Iron policy possible. In a series of wars Bismarck con¬ 
solidated and unified the empire. In the first of these, with the aid of 
Austria, in 1864, against Denmark he won Schleswig-Holstein. In the 
second war, a war with Austria in 1866, Austria lost claim to Schles¬ 
wig-Holstein. Italy gained Venice for aid in this war. Napoleon III 
of France looked with displeasure and jealousy upon the growing pres¬ 
tige and strength of Prussia. The formation of the North German Con¬ 
federation and the military treaties by north and south Germany made- 
the successful prosecution of a third war possible. In this, the Franco- 
Prussian war, France was humbled, the French empire fell, the German 
armies captured Paris, and the Prussian king was crowned emperor of 
Germany. The unification of the empire was completed, the Blood and 
Iron policy had succeeded. Prussia was the leading state of a powerful. 
European empire. 

Outline 

The Unification of Italy 
I. Early Attempts at Unification Fail 

A. Geographic influences make unification difficult 

B. Varied types of people unfavorable to unity 

C. The Church states complicate the problem 

D. Revolutions (1820, 1830, 1848) unsuccessful—Secret socie¬ 
ties—Mazinni and Young Italy 

II. Cavour and Victor Emmanuel I Effect Unity 

A. Cavour a practical statesman 

B. Sardinia becomes leader in and example for Italian liberty 

C. Foreign Policy is farsighted 

1. The Crimean War wins friendship of England and France 

2. The war with Austria wins Lombardy, 1854-1860 

D. Sardinia annexes central states 

E. Conquest of Sicily and Naples—Garibaldi—Proposed annex¬ 
ation of Rome, 1860 


528 (69) 


WORLD HISTORY 


/ 

III. Kingtom of Italy—Death of Cavour, 1861 

IV. Alliance with Prussia Wins Venice, 1866 

V. Annexation of Rome by Plebiscite, 1870 

VI. The Question of Trentino and Frieste 

The Struggle of the United States for Unity 

I. Steps in Process of Dissolution (Economic and Social) 

A. Cotton growing and slavery develop in South 

B. Cotton growing requires land expansion 

C. The North develops industry 

D. Westward expansion encourages local institutions 

E. Agitation against slavery—Uncle Tom’s Cabin—John Brown’s 
Raid—The Abolitionists 

F. Slavery and anachronism 

II. Steps in Dissolution (Political) 

A. States Rights Doctrine vs. National Supremacy 

B. The Constitution does not prohibit slavery 

C. The Missouri Compromise 

D. The Compromise of 1850 

E. The Dred Scott Decision 

F. Lincoln’s Election to the Presidency 

G. The Southern states secede—The Confederacy 

i 

III. The Civil War Establishes Doctrine of National Supremacy 

IV. One of the Great Events in World History—Principle of National¬ 
ity Established in the United States 

V. The United States Prevents Napoleon Ill’s Conquest of Mexico 




WORLD HISTORY 


(70) 529 


The Unification of Germany 

I. Early Attempts Fail 

A. Feudalism left Germany a multitude of little states 

B. Austria an obstacle to unity 

C. The Diet a failure 

D. Prussia a natural leader 

E. Failure of Democratic Attempts—Metternich 

* + 

II. Steps in the Process of Unification 

A. The Zollverein effects economic unity 

B. William II and Bismarck establish autocracy 

C. Army reforms make “Blood and Iron” policy possible 

D. Danish War, 1864—The Schleswig-Holstein Question 

E. The Austro-Prussian War, 1866—“The Seven Weeks’ War”— 
Sadowa 

1. Austria mildly treated—Venice to Italy—Loses claim to 
Schleswig-Holstein 

2. Position of France—Italian Alliance with Prussia 

F. North German Confederation—North and South German mil¬ 
itary treaties 

G. The Franco-Prussian War 

1. French Empire on decline—Jealousy of Prussia 

2. German desire for unity—Bismarck’s diplomatic game— 
Preparation for war 

3. The Spanish question—The Ems dispatch 

4. Armies: German, 500,000; French, 200,000 

Questions 

The Unification of Italy 

1. Color map, showing the growth of the kingdom of Italy. Place 
dates in the different additions showing date of annexation. 

2. What were the chief obstacles to the unification of Italy? 

3. (a) What were the parts played by Mazzini, Garibaldi and Cavour 
in the struggle for unification? (b) What was the difference in 


530 (71) 


WORLD HISTORY 


the methods each employed? (c) In what did the greatness of 
Cavour consist? 

4. (a) What form of central government did Italy have after unifica¬ 
tion? (b) How did this differ from Mazzini’s idea of a unified 
Italy? 

5. (a) By what means were the different annexations accomplished? 
(b) How did this differ from Austria’s way of unifying her terri¬ 
tory? (c) Where have you seen these two methods before? 

6. What is the great movement of the 19th century as shown by Italy, 

Belgium, Greece and Poland? * * 

7. How much of Italian territory was gained by means of alliance with 
other states? 

8. What problem in Italy was not solved, even though the nation be¬ 
came unified? 

. The Struggle of the United States for Unity 

1. Explain how cotton and slavery were causes of the Civil War. 

2. What was the difference between the North and the South, econom¬ 
ically and socially? 

3. What was the effect of Uncle Tom’s Cabin and of John Brown’s 
Raid at Harper’s Ferry? Where is Harper’s Ferry? 

4. What two United States senators debated the question of secession 
in 1830 and what were their positions? 

5. What effect had the election of Lincoln in 1860 on the precipita¬ 
tion of the war ? 

6. (a) Why and when did the southern states secede? (b) Explain 

the cause and the effect of the attack on Fort Sumter. Give date. 

7. Contrast the North and the South in respect to (a) population, 
(b) industry, (c) development and (d) wealth. 

8. What were the roles played by Generals Lee, Grant and Sherman? 
What can you say of the ability of each? 

9. What was the turning point in the war? Explain why the tide 
turned then. 

10. (a) What was the loss to the country in the death of Abraham 
Lincoln? (b) In what did his greatness consist? 

11. What was the greatest result of the Civil War? What was its 
significance to world history? 


WORLD HISTORY 


(72) 531 


12. Explain the difference between a federal government and a con¬ 
federacy. 

The Unification of Germany 

1. (a) What led to Bismarck’s struggle with the Prussian Parliament? 
(b) Can his methods in dealing with the parliament be justified? 

2. (a) Show the steps by which Bismarck brought on the war of 1866. 
(b) How does the Prussian king explain the causes of the war? 

3. (a) Why did Napoleon III agree to remain neutral in this war? 
(b) Did Prussia have any allies in the war? (c) What were the 
results of the war? (d) How was Bismarck’s statesmanship shown 
in his attitude toward Austria after the battle of Zoniggratz ? 

4. (a) What obstacles lay in the way of the formation of the North 
German Confederation? (b) How did the constitution of the con¬ 
federation overcome them ? 

5. (a) What were the causes of the Franco-Prussian war? (b) What 
part did Bismarck play in precipitating the war? (c) What were 
the results of this war for Germany? For France? For Italy? 

6. Under what circumstances was the German Empire proclaimed? 

References 

Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 507-521; Webster, 447-467; West, 489- 
491, 495, 496-505; Elson, 546-561; Robinson and Beard, II, 410-443; 
Hayes and Moon, 495-505; Hazen, 325-350. For discussion of The 
Struggle of the United States for Unity refer to standard American 
histories. 


DEVELOPMENT OF GREAT EUROPEAN STATES 

The British Empire 

The British Empire was many hundred years in growing to its pres¬ 
ent proportions and is made up of many races. Its nucleus, England, 
was made up of the original Britons and the successive invaders, Romans, 
Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Danes and Normans. To form Great Britain, 
Wales was conquered and Scotland was added by peaceful means. The 
Hundred Years’ War excluded England from her possessions in France. 
Ireland was conquered in the 13th century. England’s exclusion from 
the Continent led her to the formation of an overseas empire. In the 
15th century discoveries began. These were followed up by colonization 
in the following centuries in America, Austria, Africa and other lo¬ 
calities. Later conquests were made in India, America and Egypt. These 


532 (73) 


WORLD HISTORY 


overseas possessions in the very nature of the case called for England’s 
control of the seas. In the 16th century Spain contested that suprem¬ 
acy, in the 17th century Holland claimed control and in the 18th and 
19th centuries France fought for it. In each case the English defeated 
their rivals, in the last struggle winning Canada, India and America, 
though they lost their American possession later. The very existence 
of the British Empire depends upon her control of the seas. At the 
end of the 18th century the great industrial revolution in England ere- 
ated need for the raw materials that the colonies produced. The col¬ 
onies in turn provided markets for manufactured products. In the 
development of her commerce England has put up no tariff barriers but 
has practiced free trade. 

The English domination of the seas has not precluded the growth 
of other commercial nations. The government of Great Britain is dem¬ 
ocratic, having grown from an aristocracy gradually by the struggle of 
its people against its rulers. The constitution provides for an elec¬ 
tive kingship, a hereditary house of lords, and an elective house of com¬ 
mons. The parliamentary system obtains. The ministry is chosen from 
the successful party in the elections and falls when that party’s meas¬ 
ures are no longer acceptable to the parliament. 

The government of the empire is different. There are three dif¬ 
ferent classes of colonies, self-governing colonies whose only legal tie 
with the mother country is the governor general appointed by the king, 
such as Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand; the protector¬ 
ates like India and Egypt where there is more government by England; 
and the Crown Colonies which are governed wholly by England. 

Outline 

I. Formation of Great Britain and Ireland 

A. England: Britons, Romans, Jutes, Angles, Saxons, Danes, 
Normans 

1. The Norman Conquest 

B. Wales: Conquest by Edward I, 1282 

C. Scotland: Robert Bruce, Bannockburn, James I, Final Union, 
1707 

D. Ireland: Celts, Conquest, Self-government 

E. England and France 

1. The Hundred Years’ War—England excluded from The 
Continent 

II. Formation of Overseas Empire 

A. By right of Discovery 


WORLD HISTORY 


(74) 533 


i 


B. By Colonization: America, Australia, Africa, Oceanica 

C. By Conquest: India, Canada, Egypt 

D. Work of Chartered Trading Companies 

III. Struggle for Control of the Sea 

A. With Spain, sixteenth century—Armada 

B. With Holland, seventeenth century 

C. With France, eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries— 
Struggle for Colonial Empire in India and America 

D. Extent of Colonial Empire 

IV. The Government of Great Britain 

A. Party Government 

1. Tories—Conservative Disraeli 

2. Whig—Liberal—Gladstone—Lloyd George 

B. The Crown—Its position 

C. The Parliament—Parliamentary Reform 

1. House of Commons 

i 

2. House of Lords 

3. The Cabinet and cabinet government 

D. Electoral Reform—Universal Suffrage 

E. Factory Reform—“The War on Misery” 

F. Public Opinion and the ministry 

V. Development of Colonial Empire and Government 

A. Self Governing Colonies: Canada, Australia, South Africa 

B. The Protectorates: India, Egypt 

C. The Crown Colonies: British West Indies, etc. 

D. “Spheres of Influence” 

E. The British Colonial Policy 

F. British Naval Power and Naval Bases 

VI. The Irish Question: The Land Question, The Religious Question, 
The Home. Rule Problem 


534 (75) 


WORLD HISTORY 


VII. British Industry, Commerce and Free Trade 

A. Changes made by Industrial Revolution 

B. Role of colonies 

VII. General Democratic Reforms in Great Britain 

Questions 

1. Show the racial composition of Great Britain and Ireland by trac¬ 
ing in chronological order the several conquests. 

2. What effect on the history of England and on the history of the 
world did the defeat of England in the Hundred Years’ War have? 

3. (a) What were the steps in the formation of Britain’s overseas 
Empire? (b) How and when were the various parts of that Empire 
acquired ? 

4. (a) Why must England have control of the sea? (b) What coun¬ 
tries have contested that supremacy? (c) Give time and circum¬ 
stances of the struggles. 

5. What is the nature of the English domination of the sea ? 

6. (a) What was the industrial revolution of the 18th century? 
(b) What part did the English colonies play in it? 

7. (a) Explain the workings of the English government, (b) What 
are the powers of the king, the House of Lords, the House of Com¬ 
mons, and the ministry? (c) How does each of these get its office? 
(d) Who governs in England? 

8. Explain what is meant by saying the government of England is 
more democratic than that of America. 

9. (a) What are the members of the British Empire? (b) Explain the 
three classes of colonies, (c) What power has England over each 
of these classes? 

10. What bonds unite the colonies to England? 

References 

West, 506-543; Elson, 514-526, 584-607; Robinson, Breasted and 
Smith, 227-230, 279-281, 283-285, 351, 358, 363, 389-395, 531-549; 
Webster, 197, 272, 283, 325-328, 331-334, 416, 468-496; Hazen, 1-7, 
428-514; Robinson and Beard, II, 491-548, 636-648; Hayes and Moon, 
617-645. 


WORLD HISTORY 


(76) 535 


DEVELOPMENT OF GREAT EUROPEAN STATES 

France 

“Napoleon III who, by the endless witchery of a name, by a profit¬ 
able absence of scruples, and by favorable circumstances, had known 
how to become an Emperor, was destined to be the ruler of France and 
a leading figure in European politics for eighteen years.”* 

In 1856 he had reached the zenith of his power. He failed to es¬ 
tablish a great overseas empire in Mexico through the intervention of 
the United States. The wily Bismarck lured him into the Franco-Prus- 
sian war in 1870, and when, on September 3 of that same year, he tele¬ 
graphed from Sedan the news of his capture a mob invaded the Cham¬ 
ber of Deputies howling for a republic. The next day the Third Re¬ 
public was proclaimed. France lost the war, was forced to cede Alsace 
and Lorraine to Germany and pay an excessive indemnity. This has 
rankled in the French national consciousness ever since. 

Among the trials of the Third Republic there is to be mentioned 
the revolution of the Paris Commune and its “Bloody Week”. In 1875 
the National Assembly adopted the peculiar present constitution of 
France. “It contains no reference to the sovereignty of the people; it 
includes no bill of rights enumerating the liberties of French citizens; 
and it makes no definite provision for maintaining a republican form 

of government. It will be observed that the French parliament 

is more powerful than the Congress of the United States. It not only 
elects the president, who is under the control of a ministry represent¬ 
ing the majority in the chambers, but it may by meeting in joint session 
amend the constitution without the necessity of submitting the changes 
to the people for their ratification. There is no supreme court in France 
to declare the measures of parliament unconstitutional, and the presi¬ 
dent cannot veto them.”f 

The struggle between the Monarchists and Republicans ended in a 
victory for the Republicans in 1789. The long struggle between the 
church and the state culminated in the Law of 1907 effecting definite 
separation. France’s colonial policy has secured for her, through annex¬ 
ations and protectorates, vast colonial possessions in Africa and Asia, 
and have led to such international complications as the “Fashoda Inci¬ 
dent” and the “Moroccan Crisis”. The isolation of France, occasioned 
by the Triple Alliance, brought about the Dual Alliance with Russia. 

Germany 

V 

“The new Empire assured the Germans partial national unity but 
not democracy. Prussia, the largest and most influential State in the 
Empire, retained her undemocratic Constitution of 1850; and very few 

*Hazen—Modern European History, page 320. 

fRobinson and Beard—Outlines of European History, Part II, pages 471, 472. 






536 (77) 


WORLD HISTORY 


of the other German States found it expedient or desirable to introduce 
real parliamentary government (of the English type) in their internal 
affairs. In imperial affairs, supreme authority was vested in the Bun- 
desrat, a body of personal agents of the sovereigns of the several 
States. The Reichstag, the popular assembly elected by universal man¬ 
hood suffrage throughout the nation, was hardly more than a debating 
society; its resolutions could be effectively blocked by the Bundesrat. 
In practice, the King of Prussia, who ipso facto was ‘German Emperor’ 
(commonly referred to as the Emperor-King), was an autocrat; he 
named the chief minister of Prussia without consulting the Prussian 
parliament, and he appointed the Imperial Chancellor without the ad¬ 
vice of the Reichstag. Democracy was lacking. But militarism 

was present. In fact, the old Prussian tradition of militarism grad¬ 
ually became the most valued tradition of the new Empire. By militar¬ 
ism the Empire had been created. By militarism, patriots believed, the 
Empire would be preserved.”$ 

The economic expansion of Germany is one of the miracles of the 
20th century. In 1870 she was no great factor in world commerce and 
industry but by 1914 she had in sight the economic conquest of the 
world. Her population increased in that time from 41 millions to 67 
millions and almost half were engaged in industry. Her industries were 
encouraged and patronized by the government, in fact many of them 
were government owned. She developed transportation and communica¬ 
tion facilities such as broadening rivers, making canals, building rail¬ 
roads and shipping, enlarging postoffices, building up telegraph and tele¬ 
phone communications. She looked after the production of raw ma¬ 
terials, increased the area and productivity of her agriculture, gave 
technical training to her farmers, imported unskilled labor, encouraged 
mining and gave technical training for that branch of industry. In 
manufacturing, capital was supplied, plants built up, organizations ef¬ 
fected, banks established, all with government money. Workers were 
trained in chemical and electrical industries *and the manufacture of 
steel was encouraged. All this resulted in the increase of wealth and 
the improved condition of the workers. There grew up great rivalry 
between the agricultural and industrial classes. The effect of all of 
this was a growth of materialism among the German people. The need 
of world-markets was realized. 

This led to Germany’s “Weltpolitik”; This idea was expressed by 
the Kaiser when he said, “Our future lies on the sea”. Bismarck had 
said Germany was satiated but after Bismarck’s dismissal the Em¬ 
peror and his advisors sought world power. Germany then must have 
colonies. The period from 1870-1890 saw heavy emigration with little 
appreciation of the colonial problem, but the period beginning 1890 saw 
a decrease in emigration and an aggressive colonial policy. Territory 
was acquired in Europe, Asia, Africa and the Islands of the Pacific and 
a world policy was developed. 

tHayes and Moon—Modern History, pages 536-37. 






WORLD HISTORY 


(78) 537 


Germany’s commercial methods are open to grave criticism. She 
. closed her commerce by putting up tariff barriers, she invaded foreign 
markets in every country, sending employees, investing capital, estab¬ 
lishing banks and other institutions; she practiced “dumping” by which 
she forced competitors out of business and then monopolized the market. 
These policies were so successful that had she kept peace, Germany 
would, probably, in a few years, have had control of the markets of 
the world. All this increased Germany’s investments, and created a 
need for skilled labor, growing markets and raw materials. Not hav¬ 
ing very profitable colonies because the best lands were occupied by the 
time Germany became a unified state, she was dependent on the markets 
of England and her colonies. Even though England was a free trade 
country and never put up tariff barriers against Germany, Germany 
was not satisfied. She must have territory and a navy to compete with 
England. From 1900 she feverishly built up this navy. 

Outline 

France 

I. The Empire of Napoleon III Fails 

A. Failure of Mexican Expedition—Intervention of United States 

B. The Franco-Prussian War 

1. Bismarck’s Diplomatic Game—The Revenge of Sadowa 

2. The Spanish throne—The Ems Dispatch 

3. Fall of Sedan, Metz and Paris 

4. Fall of the Empire—Gambetta 

II. The Third Republic Proclaimed, 1870 

/ 

A. The Insurrection of the Paris Commune, 1871 — “Bloody 

Week” 

B. The National Assembly—The Constitution of 1775 

C. Political Organization of the Third Republic 

1. Legislature and Ministry 

2. The President and Prime Minister 

3. The Political bloc system 

4. The Permanent administrative bureaus—Centralization 

III. Separation of Church and State—Public Education 

IV. Colonial Policy and Colonial Expansion 


538 (79) 


WORLD HISTORY 


V. The Dual Alliance 

Germany 

I. Government of Empire—A Federal Empire 

A. The Emperor—Wide Powers 

B. The Bundesrat—The Federal Council 

C. The Reichstag-—The Imperial Diet 

D. Domination by Prussia 

E. Paternalism 

II. State Socialism—Public Ownership 

III. Bismarck Opposed Socialism 

IV. Relig-ious Conflict—The “Kulturkampf” 

V. Remarkable Industrial Expansion 

A. Population 

1. Increase: 41,000,000 (1871) to 67,000,000 (1913) 

2. Distribution: 30,000,000 in industry (1912) 

B. Development of Transportation and Communication 

1. Transportation: Rivers, canals, railroads, shipping 

2. Communication: Post-office, telegraph, telephone 

C. Production of Raw Material 

1. Agriculture: Increase in area and productivity—Tech¬ 
nical training—Importation of labor 

2. Mining—Technical training 

D. Manufacturing 

1. Capital—Plants—Organizations—Banks 

2. Captains in industry—Training of workers 

3. Chemical industries—Electrical supplies—Steel 

E. Effects of this development 

1. Increase of wealth and improved condition of workers 

2. Rivalry of agricultural and industrial classes 

3. Growth of Materialism—Need of world markets 

VI. Equally Remarkable Commercial Expansion 

A. The “Weltpolitik” of Germany: “Future on the Sea” 

1. Under Bismarck “satiated”—After Bismarck, world power 




WORLD HISTORY (80) 539 

B. Commercial Methods: Invasion of foreign markets, “Dump¬ 
ing”, capital, banks 

1. Influence on Germany—Need of growing markets—Need 
of raw material 

2. Relation to England: Dependence on English markets, 
need of a navy 

C. Colonization 

1. First period, 1870-1890: Large emigration, Little colonial 
ambition 

2. Second period, 1890-: Decrease in emigration, Aggressive 
colonial policy 

D. Colonial Policy and Colonial Expansion 
VII. The Triple Alliance 

VIII. German Militarism, Navalism and “Weltpolitik” 

Questions 

France 

1. Trace the events leading to the fall of Napoleon III. 

2. Was there a popular demand in France for a war with Prussia? 
Why? 

3. Account for Prussia’s military success. 

4. What relation had Gambetta to the fall of The Empire ? To French 
resistance in the war? 

5. How was the government organized under the Third Republic? 

6. What occasioned the separation of the Church and State? What 
problems grew out of this separation? What were the results? 

7. What was the Dual Alliance? What led to this alliance? 

8. What gave rise to France’s military policy? , 

Germany 

1. Explain the organization of the German government. Is it a dem¬ 
ocratic government or not? 

2. Why did Bismarck oppose socialism? 

3. What is meant by “Kulturkampf” ? What were the causes of the 
Kulturkampf ? 


540 


(81) 


WORLD HISTORY 


4. What marked changes came over the population of Germany from 
1871 to 1913 in (a) numbers, (b) distribution and (c) occupation? 

5. (a) What factors influenced the change in Germany from an agri¬ 
cultural to an industrial country? (b) What steps did the Ger¬ 
man government take to encourage industry? (c) What were the 
effects of industrial development? 

6. (a) Why did Germany need colonies? (b) What caused the fric¬ 
tion with other nations? 

7. (a) What were Germany’s methods of invading foreign markets? 
(b) What is meant by “dumping”? (c) What is the “closed com¬ 
mercial state”? 

8. (a) What is “Weltpolitik”? (b) Explain “free trade”, “protection”, 

“freedom of the seas”, (c) What nations are associated with these 
terms? 

9. Why would Germany’s economic conquest of the world conflict 
with England? 

10. What led to the Triple Alliance? 

11. What effect did Germany’s militarism have on other nations? 

References 

Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 522-530; West, 544-569, 614, 615; 
Elson, 562-583; Webster, 498-504, 513-519, 651, 653; Hayes and Moon, 
474-489, 510, 537-548; Robinson and Beard, II, 444-489, 648-658; 
Hazen, 351-408. (None of these texts give sufficient information on 
German economic expansion. The teacher should supply material 
from such other sources as are available.) 

DEVELOPMENT OF GREAT EUROPEAN STATES 

Italy 

Italy united as a nation in 1871 with her capital at Rome, adopted a 
constitutional form of government and began her progress toward world 
power and democracy. The illiteracy and ignorance of the masses pre¬ 
sented the urgent problem of education—the adoption of a compulsory 
education has done much to obviate this difficulty. The perplexing ques¬ 
tion of the kingdom’s relations to the papacy was defined by the Law 
of Papal Guarantees. Italy became a world power through her military 
policy, her connection with the Triple Alliance and her imperialism. 


WORLD HISTORY 


(82) 541 


Austria-Hungary 

“Austria, perilously near dissolution in 1848, torn by revolutions 
in Bohemia, Hungary, the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, with her influ¬ 
ence in Germany temporarily paralized, had emerged, triumphant from 
the storm and by 1850 was in a position to impose her will once more 
upon her motley group of states. She learned no lesson from the fear¬ 
ful crisis through which she had passed but at once entered upon a 
course of reaction of the old familiar kind.”* An attempt made in 1861 
to unite all the possessions of Francis Joseph in a single great empire 
resulted in a compromise in 1867 between Austria and Hungary. The 
Dual Monarchy thus formed was unique in the world’s history. This 
large empire was centuries in building. 

“The House of Hapsburg has lost since 1815 the rich Lombardo- 
Venetian kingdom (1859-66). It has gained, however, Bosnia and Her¬ 
zegovina. As a result of the Russo-Turkish war of 1877 these Turkish 
provinces were handed over by the Congress of Berlin of 1878 to Aus¬ 
tria-Hungary to ‘occupy’ and ‘administer’. The Magyars at the time 
opposed the assumption of these provinces, wishing no more Slavs with¬ 
in the monarchy, but despite their opposition they were taken over, so 
strongly .was the Emperor in favor of it. This acquisition of these Bal¬ 
kan countries rendered Austria-Hungary a more important and aggres¬ 
sive factor in all Balkan politics, and in the discussions of the so-called 
Eastern Question, the future of European Turkey. In October, 1908, 
Austria-Hungary declared these provinces formally annexed.”! 

“Taken altogether, Austria and Hungary, with their joint posses¬ 
sion of Bosnia-Herzegovina, embraced people of nine different national¬ 
ities. Two of these nationalities were in the saddle, namely, the twelve 
million Germans and the ten million Magyars or Hungarians. The Ger¬ 
mans controlled Austria, and the Magyars ruled Hungary, according to 
the Compromise of 1867. The other seven nationalities might be called 
subject peoples. There were eight million Czechoslovaks, seven million 
Yugoslavs, five million Poles, four million Ukrainians, three million 
Rumanians, and almost a million Italians. Thus twenty-eight million 
people belonging to subject nationalities were held down by twenty-two 
million Germans and Magyars. Quite naturally the latter were unwil¬ 
ling to grant self-determination to the oppressed nationalities. Quite 
naturally, also, they feared the awakening of national consciousness 
among the Yugoslavs, Rumanians, Poles, and others.”! 

Russia 

“Russia at the fall of Napoleon was the largest state in Europe, and 
was a still larger Asiatic empire. It extended in unbroken stretch from 

♦Hazen—Modern European History, page 416. 

tHazen—Modern European History, page 426. 

tHayes aud Moon—Modern History, page 611. 




542 (83) 


WORLD HISTORY 


the German Confederation to the Pacific Ocean. Its population was 
about 45,000,000. Its European territory covered about 2,000,000 square 
miles. It was inhabited by a variety of races, but the principal one 
was the Slavic. Though there were many religions, the religion of the 
court and of more than two-thirds of the population was the so-called 
Greek Orthodox form of Christianity. Though various languages were 
spoken, Russian was the chief one.”# 

“With the onward march of democracy and liberty in Western Eur¬ 
ope during the nineteenth century, the giant nation of the East failed 
to keep pace. The mighty empire built up by the Romanov Tsars re¬ 
mained an autocracy incapable of making more than a few faltering 
steps toward freedom. Not in the path of liberal progress, but rather 
in the footsteps of Peter and Catherine the Great, did the Tsars of the 
nineteenth century seek to follow. Their goal was not popular sov¬ 
ereignty, but the territorial expansion of a triumphant despotism.”§ 
“During the past century Russia has been coming into ever closer 
relations with western Europe. Although still a backward country in 
many respects, she has been busily engaged for fifty years in modern¬ 
izing herself; and shortly after the opening of the twentieth century it 

looked as if a popular government would be established by violence.. 

Among the vast millions of Russians many are sure to contribute to 
our civilization in the future. It becomes, therefore, a matter of vital 
interest to follow the changes which are turning the tide of modem 
civilization into eastern Europe.”* 

The political history of Russia was a succession of autocratic repres¬ 
sions of democratic aspirations. Her imperialistic designs were thwarted 
in first one direction and then another by nations surrounding her. Her 
recent foreign wars netted her little gain but usually resulted in loss 
of territory and prestige. Progressive arrogance, corruption and in¬ 
efficiency of government laid Russia liable to violent political and social 
revolution. 

Outline 

Italy 

I. Italian Unity—The Constitution 

A. Adopts the Parliamentary System 

B. Extension of Suffrage 

II. The Kingdom and the Papacy 

A. The law of papal guarantees 

B. The “Prisoner of the Vatican” 


ftHazen—Modern European History, page 558. 

§Hayes and Moon—Modern History, page 551. 

♦Robinson and Beard, Part II—Outlines of European History, page Ml. 



WORLD HISTORY 


(8-4) 543 


III. Foreign Relations—The Triple Alliance—Problem of Unredeemed 
Italy 

IV. Military and Colonial Policy 

A. Burdensome Taxation—Emigration 

Austria-Hungary 

I. Development of Austrian Empire to 1848 

A. Struggle with Ottoman Turks 

B. Rise of the Hapsburg-Dynasty—Francis Joseph 

C. Territorial Acquisitions at Congress of Vienna 

D. Extent of Empire in 1848 

II. The Struggles for Existence, 1848-1867 

A. The Revolutions of 1848 

1. Democratic insurrection in Vienna suppressed 

2. Czech’s and Magyar’s national aspirations thwarted 

B. Elimination from Germany 

C. Wars with Italy—Loss of Lombardy and Venice 

D. Francis Joseph liberalizes his policies 

III. The Formation of the Dual Monarchy 

A. The Compromise of 1867—The Ausgleich 

B. The Government under the Ausgleich 

C. Power of Church circumscribed 

IV. The Problem of Nationalities—Self determination and submerged 
peoples—Interest in Balkans, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Russia 

I. Russian Autocracy—The Romanov Dynasty 

A. Geography of Empire 

B. People: Russians, Non-Russians—Religion—Government 
II. Alexander I Becomes Reactionary, 1801-1825 


544 (85) 


WORLD HISTORY 


III. The Reign of Nicholas I, 1825-1855 

A. The “Decembrist” Revolt, 1825 

B. Suppression of Polish Rebellion, 1830-1831 

C. Repression of Liberalism—“The Third Section” 

D. Aids Greece in Revolution against Turkey 

IV. The Reign of Alexander II, 1855-1881 

A. The Crimean War a Failure—Russia’s Interest in the Bal¬ 
kans 

B. The Freeing of the Serfs—The Land Question 

C. The Rise and Growth of Nihilism—Origin of Terrorism—As¬ 
sassination of Emperor 

D. The Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878—Berlin Congress 

V. Alexander III, 1881-1894, and Nicholas I, 1894-1917—The Policy 
of Keeping Russia “Frozen” 

A. The Industrial Revolution: Rise of a Middle Class, Labor 
Problems, Industrial Development and Foreign Capital, 
Trans-Siberian Railroad 

B. Von Plehve: Persecution of Liberals—“Red Sunday” 

C. Failure of Far East Policy—Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905 

D. Double-dealing with Democracy—The Duma and The Imperial 
Council 

VI. Russia Ripe for Violent Revolution—Graft and Inefficiency in 
Administration 

Questions 

Italy 

1. Why does the Pope consider himself a “Prisoner of the Vatican”? 

2. What led Italy to join the Triple Alliance? 

3. How did the military and colonial policies cause emigration? 

4. How many Italians in the United States? 


WORLD HISTORY 


(86) 545 


Austria-Hungary 

1. Trace the development of the Austrian Empire to 1850. 

2. What part did Austria take in suppressing the Revolutions of 1820, 

1830, and 1848? 

« 

3. Why did Francis Joseph change his policies? 

4. What is the Ausgleich? What are the powers of the Emperor? 

5. Why did Austria form an alliance with Germany? 

6. What were the results of the wars with Italy and Germany? 

7. Explain the problem of nationalities in Austria-Hungary. 

8. Make a map showing territorial acquisitions and losses. 

Russia 

1. Trace the history of repression and revolt in Russia. 

2. Trace the rise and growth of nihilism. 

3. What problems grew out of the freeing of the serfs? 

4. Outline the history of Russia’s wars with Turkey. Why were they 
fought? What was the attitude of other nations during each of 
these wars? 

5. What was meant by keeping Russia “frozen” ? 

6. What were the effects of the Industrial Revolution on Russia? 

7. Show how the Russo-Japanese War (a) disclosed the inefficiency 
of the Russian government, (b) affected Russia’s Far East Policy, 
(c) led to domestic revolution and revolt. 

8. Show the insincerity of the government in its dealing with the 
demand for parliamentary government. 

References 

Webster, 308, 309, 364, 419, 435-437, 453, 463, 505-508, 519, 529, 536; 
Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 386-387, 415, 476, 502, 503-504, 515- 
516, 518-521, 551-567; Elson, 494, 497, 540-542, 551-554, 609-623; 
West, 315-317, 444, 449, 454, 486-487, 570-574, 586-594, 622-624; Rob¬ 
inson and Beard, II, 96-97, 286, 317, 349, 393-398, 415, 417-425, 439- 
443, 551-573, 575, 577-579, 581; Hayes and Moon, 498, 507-514, 526- 
527, 603-613; Hazen, 9-10, 409-426, 558-582, 585-589. 


r 


546 (87) 


WORLD HISTORY 


COLONIAL EXPANSION 
and the 

UNIFICATION OF WORLD HISTORY 

“As a result of the Industrial Revolution Europe has become a busy 
world of shops and factories, which produce much more than Europeans 
can use. So new markets are constantly sought in distant parts of 

the world. This world trade is one of the great facts of history; 

for it has led the European nations to plant new colonies and to try 
to monopolize markets in Asia and Africa and wherever else they could. 
This has brought rivalries between the nations at home, and it was one 
of the causes of the great European war. 

This prodigious expansion of commerce was made possible by the 
discovery that steam could be used to carry goods cheaply and speedily 
to all parts of the earth. Steamships and railways have made the world 
one great market place.”* 

“Colonial expansion, begun by Spaniards and Portuguese in the six¬ 
teenth century and continued in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen¬ 
turies by Russians, Dutch, French, and English, culminated during the 
past hundred-odd years. It is principally this movement which gives 

such significance to European history. Great Britain in 1815 was 

the leading world power. France had been well-nigh eliminated as a 
colonial rival by the Seven Years’ War, and Holland had lost valuable 
possessions overseas in the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. The 
spectacle of the British Empire, so populous, so rich in natural re¬ 
sources, so far-flung, stirred the imagination and aroused the envy of the 
witnessing nations. They, also, became eager for possessions in savage 
or half-civilized lands. France, from the time of Louis Philippe, began 
to conquer northwestern Africa and Madagascar and to acquire terri¬ 
tories in southeastern Asia. Italy and Germany, having attained na¬ 
tionhood, entered into the race for overseas dominions. Portugal and 
Spain annexed new colonies. Diminutive Belgium built up a colonial 
empire in Africa. Mighty Russia spread out eastward over the whole 
of Siberia and, having reached the Pacific, moved southward toward the 
warmer waters of the Indian Ocean. Meanwhile, the United States ex¬ 
panded across the American continent, acquired the Philippines and 
other dependencies, and stood forth at length as an imperial power. 
Few and unimportant were those regions of the world which remained 
unappropriated at the opening of the twentieth century. 

The word ‘imperialism’ conveniently describes all this activity of 

the different nations in reaching out for colonial dependencies. 

The imperialistic ambitions of the great powers more than once led 
them to disregard the rights of weaker nations in Africa, Asia, and 
other parts of the world.”f 

♦Robinson and Beard—Outlines of European History, Part II, page 592. 

tWebster—World History, pages 540-541. 







WORLD HISTORY 
Outline 


(88) 547 


I. The Continuation of the Industrial Revolution 

A. The Locomotive and Development of Railways 

B. The Steamboat and Foreign Commerce 

C. Manufacturing and need for foreign markets 

D. Suez and Panama Canals 

E. Rapid Communication—Telegraph—Cables—Wireless 

F. Foreign Investment and “spheres of influence” 

II. Missionaries Spread Civilization and Spread Control 

III. Expansion of West into Asia 

A. Russia: Siberia, Trans-Siberian Railway, Lower Amur Valley 
—Manchuria and the Russo-Japanese War 

B. Great Britain: India, Burma, Straits Settlements 

C. France: Indo-China • 

D. Buffer States: Persia, Afghanistan, Tibet (between Russia 
and Great Britain), Siam (between Great Britain and France) 

E. Chinese Isolation Destroyed 

1. The Conquest by Business—The Opium War, 1840-1842— 
Commercial treaties and concessions 

2. Chino-Japanese War, 1894-1895: Russian Interference, 
Germans in Shantung 

3. Threatened Partition—“American Open Door Policy” 

4. Chinese Progress—Revolutions and Reforms 

F. Japan makes rapid strides—Commodore Perry 

1. Japanese Reforms: Abolish feudalism, Adoption of a 
Constitution—Army and Navy 

2. Industrial and Commercial Development 

3. Chino-Japanese War, 1894-1895: Japan accepts money 
indemnity, European Powers oppose annerations 

4. Russo-Japanese War: Treaty of Portsmouth 

5. Japan a World Power—Anglo-Japanese Alliance 

G. India—A British Colony 

1. Peoples and Religions of India 

2. Western civilization and progress 


WORLD HISTORY 


548 (89) 

* 

3. Indian nationalism and rebellions—British control 

4. Government of India 

H. The United States in the Philippines and Hawaii 

IV. The Partition of Africa 

A. The Exploration and the opening-up of Africa—The geogra¬ 
phy of the continent 

B. British claims 

1. South Africa—Boer War—Union of South Africa 

2. Egypt: A British Protectorate, Strategic importance, 
Suez Canal, Development 

3. Conquest of Sudan 

4. The “Cape to Cairo Railway” 

C. French Claims, Colonization, Conquests and Protectorates 

D. The Germans in Africa 

E. Belgium and the Congo 

F. Italians in Africa 

V. Great Britain Colonizes Australasia 

VI. Imperialism a Factor in International Relations 

Questions 

1. How did the Industrial Revolution tend to extend foreign commerce? 

2. How do foreign investments further imperialism? 

3. How do the Suez and Panama canals serve commerce? 

4. How do missionary enterprises sometimes lead to commercial ex¬ 
ploitation ? 

5. Make a map showing the partition of Asia. 

6. Outline the steps in Japan’s rise to the position of a world power. 

7. What were the provisions of the Anglo-Japanese alliance? 

8. What is the American “Open Door Policy” for China? 

9. What “buffer states” have been set up in Asia? 

10. Make a maip showing the partition of Africa among the European 
powers. 


WORLD HISTORY 


(90) 549 


11. How did the United States acquire the Philippines? 

12. Outline the development of South Africa. 

13. How might imperialism lead to wars ? Give examples of wars re¬ 
sulting from imperialism. 

References 

West, 601-614; Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 569-584; Webster, 
540-566, 581-582, 592-604; Hazen, 373-374, 403-406, 414, 462-474, 487- 
490, 493-514; Elson, 569, 580-581, 593-602, 613-616; Robinson and 
Beard, II, 592-632; Hayes and l^Ioon, 651-695. 

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 
and the 

UNIFICATION OF WORLD HISTORY 
Origins of the World War 

International relations for the last fifty years have had, in the main, 
these four aspects—the balance of power in Europe as a diplomatic 
doctrine; the making of alliances and its concomitant, secret diplomacy; 
colonial rivalries and neo-mercantilism; military and naval rivalries and 
an exaggerated nationalism. Peace conferences, attempts to reduce 
armament, suggestions for ‘‘naval holiday'’ all failed. 

The balance of power idea has played a significant part in European 
history since the Peace of Westphalia. It has been a fundamental doc¬ 
trine in European diplomacy. 

The making of alliances has an intricate history. Germany feared 
France might attempt to right the wrongs of 1871—the seizure of Alsace 
and Lorraine and the excessive indemnity. She increased her army, 
threatened France with war in 1875 but demurred on the intervention 
of Russia. Bismarck’s support of Austria’s Balkan ambitions in the 
Congress of Berlin, 1878, offended Russia. Immediately following, 1879, 
Germany and Austria formed their defensive alliance. Italy, offended by 
France for establishing a protectorate over Tunis, was induced to join 
with Germany and Austria in 1882. Thus the Triple Alliance was 
formed. In 1884 Bismarck secretly negotiated the “reinsurance treaty” 
with Russia. France was isolated. William II, after dismissing Bis¬ 
marck, changed his attitude toward Russia because ah alliance with her 
would interfere with his and Austria’s interests in the Balkans. Russia 
was isolated. 

Russia and Austria had conflicting interests in the Balkans; France 
and Germany both claimed Alsace and Lorraine; French citizens had 
loaned large sums of money to Russia for commercial and industrial de¬ 
velopment; Germany backed Austria—as a result the two isolated na- 


550 (91) 


WORLD HISTORY 


tions, Russia and France, formed the Dual Alliance in 1891. England 
was isolated. 

The rapid development of Germany’s war fleet appeared as a chal¬ 
lenge to England. In consequence England began to rebuild her navy, 
iron out her difficulties with France and Russia, and establish “under¬ 
standings”. She settled her differences with France, 1904, by an agree¬ 
ment over African Territory—France to have a free hand in Morocco, 
England thereafter to administer the affairs of Egypt. This “understand¬ 
ing” was known as the Entente Cordiale. Germany was offended at the 
arrangement because she had no part in the making of it, so in 1905 when 
Russia, the only ally that France had, was weakened by her war with Ja¬ 
pan, Germany demanded a part in the negotiations. The results of the in¬ 
ternational conference called at Algeciras, 1906, were disappointing to 
Germany. (It is interesting to note that the representative sent by the 
United States to this conference voted with France.) England settled 
her Asiatic difficulites with Russia in the Anglo-Russian conference in 
1907. The Entente Cordiale thereby became the Triple Entente. 

Troubles in Morocco soon gave Germany another excuse for inter¬ 
ference. England supported France. Germany, after being ceded terri¬ 
tory in the French Congo, withdrew from the affair diplomatically 
defeated. But the “Agadir incident” engendered even more bitterness 
in international affairs. In 1911 Italy (also come to an understanding 
with France, 1905) seized Tripoli. So Germany felt that she was every¬ 
where ignored in the race for colonies. She had, however, established 
close relations w r ith Turkey, but Turkey was in the throes of dismem¬ 
berment and elimination from Europe. Further discussion of Inter¬ 
national Relations properly belongs to the “Eastern Question”. 

All these international rivalries led to tremendous outlays for armies 
and navies, Germany leading. Europe was an “armed camp”, smoul¬ 
dering with international bitternesses, “at the mercy of circumstances”. 
The “circumstances”, also, arose out of the Eastern Question. 

Outline 

I. The Balance of Power as a Diplomatic Dictrine 

A. The idea in the Peace of Westphalia 

B. The Balance of Power in the Congress of Vienna 

C. Formation of the German Empire disturbs the Balance of 
Power 

D. The Triple and Dual Alliances and the Balance of Power 

II. Making Alliances—Secret Diplomacy 

A. The development of the Triple Alliance 


WORLD HISTORY 


(92) 551 


1. Defensive alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, 
1789: Support of Austria in Balkans—Fear of Russia in 
Balkans 

2. Triple Alliance: Italy joins Germany and Austria-Hun¬ 
gary, 1882, France and Italy in Tunis, France isolated 

3. Relations of Germany and Russia: Reinsurance Treaty 

B. Development of Triple Entente 

1. Dual Alliance: France and Russia, 1891 

a. French loans to Russia 

b. Russia and Austria-Hungary—The Balkan Question 

c. France and Germany: Alsace-Lorraine Question 

d. German interest: The Berlin to Bagdad Railway 

2. Entente' Cordiale, 1904: England ends “isolation”, Ad¬ 
justs differences with France 

3. Triple Entente, 1907: Anglo-Russian Convention 
a. Effect of First Moroccan Crisis 

C. The Anglo-Japanese Treaty, 1902 

D. The “Encirclement of Germany” 

1. Germany’s “Place in the Sun” 

2. Determination to break the “iron circle” 

III. Colonial Rivalries—International Disputes 

A. Incidents only remotely related to the World War 

1. France and Italy in Tunis, 1881—Italy joins Triple Alli¬ 
ance, 1882 

2. France and England in Egypt—The Fashoda Affair 

3. The Spanish-American War and decline of Spain, 1898 

4. The Venezuelan Dispute—Roosevelt and the Monroe 
Doctrine 

5. The Boer War, 1899-1902—Germany’s Attitude 

6. Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905—Weakens Russia 

B. Incidents more closely related to the World War 

1. The First Moroccan Crisis, 1905—The Algeciras Confer¬ 
ence, 1906 

2. The Second Moroccan Crisis: The Agadir Incident, 1911 

IV. Military and Naval Rivalries—Spread of Militarism—“Armed 
Peace” 


A. Germany’s Militarism—Determines to break “iron circle” 


552 (93) 


WORLD HISTORY 



1. Army not controlled by parliament 

2. Rapid growth of army 

3. Central position in Europe 

B. Other nations adopt universal military service 

C. Germany’s threatening development of war fleets a.it. naval 
bases 

1. “Future on the Seas” 

2. “Place in the Sun” 

3. Pan-Germanism—Middle Europe—“Kultur” cult 

D. England’s naval policy 

1. Protection of Industry 

2. Protection of Colonial Empire 

3. Protection against Germany 

E. Burdens of militarism 

V. The Peace Movement 

A. The cost of modern armament 

B. Czar Nicholas suggests a disarmament conference 

C. England suggests a “naval holiday” 

D. The Hague conferences and their accomplishments 

VI. Europe on the Brink of War 

Questions 

1. What is meant by the balance of power? Trace the part it played 
in European international politics. 

2. What action of Germany in the Treaty of 1871 led her to the great 
increase of her army? 

3. What led to the threat of War in Europe in 1875 and how was war 
prevented ? 

4. What was Germany’s object in forming the alliance with Austria 
in 1879? How had she paved the way for it? 

5. Give the circumstances under which Italy joined the Dual Alliance 
of Germany and Austria. 

6. What were the circumstances of the fall of Bismarck and what 
effect had it on the policy of Germany? 


WORLD HISTORY 


(94) 553 


7. What circumstances drove France and Russia to form the Dual 
Alliance in 1892? 

8. What do you understand by the “Encirclement of Germany”? 

9. Why did Germany build a war-fleet so rapidly about 1900? Why 
did England advance in ship building after she had a great fleet? 

10. (a) Give the reasons for and the circumstances attending the for¬ 
mation of the Dual Entente, 1904. (b) What is the difference 

between an entente and an alliance? 

11. What demands did Germany make on France in 1905? Why did 
she make them at that time? Why was the Algeciras conference 
called? Who was represented there and what was its decision? 

12. What was the cause and what the result of the German appearance 
at Agadir in 1911? 

13. Show how Germany’s military policy led to the extension of mili¬ 
tarism all over Europe. 

14. What was England’s naval policy and why was this policy adopted ? 

15. What was Germany’s naval policy and why was this policy adopted ? 

16. What is meant by “Pan-Germanism”, “Middle Europe” ? What did 
the Kaiser mean by Germany’s “Place in the Sun”? 

17. Show how this whole problem resulted from a mixture of imperial¬ 
ism and nationalism. 

References 

Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 322, 364, 600-606; West, 392, 614-618, 
619-620; Webster, 278, 418, 466, 650-657, 661-668; Robinson and 
Beard, II, 677-686; Hayes and Moon, 683-699, 699-713; Hazen, 374- 
378, 382, 407-408, 590-594; Elson, 407-409, 553, 575, 598, 613-616, 
600, 633, 646-650. 

TURKEY AND THE EASTERN QUESTION 
Origins of the World War 

All through the period of Modern History “there went on the pro¬ 
cess of the dismemberment of an empire which had once terrified the 
western world, threatening all Europe with subjection beneath her pe¬ 
culiarly galling and debasing yoke. During the past two centuries that 
empire has been on the defensive and has steadily lost ground. In the 
eighteenth century Russia and Austria, her neighbors, despoiled her 
of some of her valuable lands. In the nineteenth it was, in the main, 
her own subjects who rose against her, who* tore the empire apart, and 


554 (95) 


WORLD HISTORY 


founded a number of independent states on soil that was formerly Turk¬ 
ish. The map of modern Europe shows no greater change as compared 
with the map a hundred years ago than in the Balkan peninsula. That 
change is the product of a most eventful history, the solution thus far 
given to one of the most intricate and contentious problems European 
statesmen have ever had to consider, the Eastern Question, the question, 
that is, of what should be done with Turkey”.* 

The Turks have been a foreign, disturbing element in Europe since 
their entry in the 13th century. They overran southeastern Europe be¬ 
tween about 1200 and 1700, reaching their farthest limit in 1683. They 
conquered the Arabs and accepted their religion. This religion they 
tried to force upon Europe. They conquered, included in their empire, 
and subjected to vicious oppression, Greeks, Roumanians, Bulgarians, 
Serbs, and Albanians. One by one these people rose in revolt against 
this autocratic oppression and established their independence. Even 
the “Young Turks” executed a successful coup d’etat in 1908. In 1911 
Italy in an aggressive war seized Tripoli and started again the dismem¬ 
berment of Turkey. 

The two Balkan wars—one in 1912, the Balkan states against Turkey; 
the other, 1913, Bulgaria against the other Balkan states and Turkey— 
substantially changed the map of the peninsula. 

Russia and Austria (supported by Germany) vied with each other 
for control of the Balkan Peninsula. Russia’s aspirations may be called 
“Pan-Slavism”; the designs of Austria-Hungary and Germany can best 
be described by the terms “Pan-Germanism” and “Middle Europe”. Ser¬ 
bia, opposed to the expansion of Austria into the Balkans (e.g. the an¬ 
nexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina), had hopes of uniting the southern 
Slavs into a larger Slav state. 

An examination of “the reaction of all these profound and aston¬ 
ishing changes in the Balkans upon Europe in general” reveals “causes 
of war of 1914. For the Balkan wars of 1912 and 1913 were a prelude 
to the European War of 1914. The sequence of events from the Turkish 
Revolution of July, 1908 to the Austrian declaration of war upon Servia 
in July, 1914 is direct, unmistakable, disastrous. Each year added a 
link to the lengthening chain of iron. The map of Europe was thrown 
into the flames.”* A new map was made by the Paris peace conference 
in 1919. 

♦Hazen—Modern History, pages 540 and 606. 

Outline 

I. Turkish Conquest of Asia Minor 

A. Seljuk Turks, 1058 

B. Ottoman Turks in Asia Minor, 1227 

C. Arabs and Turks 




WORLD HISTORY 


(96) 555 


II. The Conquest of Europe by Ottoman Turks 

A. Capture Constantinople, 1453 

B. Balkan Peninsula and Hungary, 1453-1683 

1. Battle of Lepanto, 1571 

2. Defeat at Vienna, 1683 

C. Back to Danube, 1800 

D. Work of Austria, Russia and Poland 

E. Aspects of conquest and domination 

1. Seas: Mediterranean, Aegean, Black, Adriatic 

2. People: Greeks, Romans, Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians 

3. Religious Differences 

4. Lack of assimilation and civilization 

III. The Eastern Question—“What should be done with Turkey ?” 

A. Influence of French Revolution and Nationalism on Balkan 
Peoples 

• 

B. Revolt of Peoples—Foreign interventions 

1. Rise of Serbia, 1804-1830 

2. Greece, 1821-1830—Greek war of independence—Foreign 
intervention—Russo-Turkish War 

3. Crimean War—A failure as a solution 

4. Roumania, 1856 

5. The Insurrection of 1875 

a. Bulgarian atrocities 

b. Serbia, Montenegro and Russia declare war—Treaty 
of San Stefano 

c. The Congress of Berlin, 1878, revises the Treaty— 
General dissatisfaction 

6. The Turkish Revolution, 1908: The Young Turks 

a. Austria-Hungary annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina 

b. Germany supports Austria 

C. Turko-Italian War, 1911, Starts new dismemberment and 
Balkan wars 

D. German Interest in Balkans 

1. Economic and military control 

2. The Bagdad railroad 

3. “Middle Europe’— Pan-Germanism 


556 (97) 


WORLD HISTORY 


E. Position of Austria-Hungary 

1. Dual Monarchy and subject peoples 

2. The Southern Slavs’ ambition for a larger Serbia 

F. Russia and Panslavism 

G. British interests in Egypt and India 

IV. The Balkan Wars 

A. The First Balkan War, 1912-1913 

1. Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece against Turkey 

2. Austria’s intervention—Opposes Serbia—Germany backs 
Austria 

3. Treaty of London 

B. Second Balkan War, 1913 

1. Servia, Greece, Roumania and Turkey against Bulgaria 

2. Treaty of Bucharest, 1913 

C. Balkan Wars fail to solve the Eastern question 

V. Reaction of Balkan Wars on Europe—Military Preparations of 
1913—Who Should Have the Spoils, A Cause for War 

Questions 

1. How was the Turk the cause of the World War? 

2. What are the points of difference and of similarity between Turks 
and Arabs? When did each enter Europe? 

3. What effect had the Turkish invasion on the Balkan States? How 
many and what nationalities in the Balkan peninsula? 

4. What was the relation of the Turks to the conquered peoples? 

5. What time and place marks the farthest advance of the Turk into 
Europe ? Who drove him back ? 

6. What states in the Balkans had had great empires before the Turk 
came in? Note the dates. 

7. When did the various Balkan states gain their nationality? What 
great event in Western Europe probably stimulated them in this 
attempt ? 

8. What is meant by the “Drang Nach Osten”? Explain fully. 

9. What was the nature of the Austro-Hungarian Empire? What 
races did it contain ? 


WORLD HISTORY 


(98) 557 


10. How did the existence of the Austro-Hungarian Empire conflict 
with the idea of a larger Serbia ? 

11. What were the circumstances of the annexation of Bosnia-Herze- 
govina to Austria? 

12. What three wars occurred involving the Turk in 1911, 1912, 1913? 
What relation had these to the World War in 1914? 

13. Why was Germany interested in Turkey and the Balkans? 

14. What was the nature of Russia’s interest in the Balkans ? 

References 

West, 295, 317, 568-569, 621-626; Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 237, 
386-387, 483-484, 553-556, 559-560, 606-612; Webster, 187, 193-194, 
280, 308-309, 529-539, 658-661; Elson, 262, 317, 498-500, 553, 587, 
621-625, 650-651; Robinson and Beard, II, 67, 117, 574-591, 687-690; 
Hayes and Moon, 551-555, 591-602, 676-678; Hazen, 1, 25, 375, 540- 
557, 594-606. 


THE WORLD WAR 
Immediate Causes 

The Turk was practically eliminated from Europe by the Balkan 
Wars but the Eastern question was not settled. The treaty of Bucha¬ 
rest was not satisfactory to the Central Powers. “It left Germany’s 
vassal, Turkey, with only a footing in Europe; it planted a hostile Serbia 
squarely in Macedonia, where she blocked the ‘Middle Europe’ scheme”; 
the seaport of Salonika went to Greece; the “Berlin to Bagdad Rail¬ 
road” plan was thwarted. The Austrian Policy was to incorporate the 
Balkan states into her Empire. The Dual Monarchy included as sub¬ 
ject peoples: in Austria, Czechs, Poles, Slovenes, Ruthenes and Italians; 
in Hungary, Croats, Serbs, Slovaks and Rumanians. There were no plans 
for granting nationality to these subject peoples. Before the Balkan 
Wars the Slavs within the Austro-Hungarian Empire hoped to gain 
representation thru the establishment of an Austrian-Hungarian-Slav 
state. After the wars they hoped for what suited them better—the 
establishment of a larger Serbia. Germany, favoring the Austrian pol¬ 
icy of incorporating the Balkans, supported Austria in all her interfer¬ 
ences and encroachments. Russia opposed the Austrian policy. The 
Archduke Ferdinand favored the project of a triune state. 

On the 28th of June, 1914 the Archduke and his wife were murdered 
while traveling in Bosnia at Sarajevo. A month later, July 23, Austria 
sent an ultimatum to Serbia. This time limit prescribed by the ultima¬ 
tum prevented negotiations, and the terms, if accepted, meant Serbia’s 
surrender of her sovereignty. “Serbia replied on July 25. She agreed 


558 (99) 


WORLD HISTORY 


to all the Austrian demands except those which.would violate 

her rights as a sovereign state—would make her, in fact, an Austrian 
vassal. She concluded by offering to submit the entire dispute to arbi¬ 
tration by the international tribunal at The Hague or to the mediation 
of the great powers. Austria-Hungary rejected the Serbian reply as 
insincere and on July 28 declared war upon her little neighbor.” Then 
began the efforts to prevent the war. Russia advised Serbia to make 
large concessions but showed a determination to stand by her. “But 
if Russia intervened to aid Serbia by making war on Austria-Hungary, 
then Germany, as the latter’s ally, would surely attack Russia; and 
France, bound to Russia in firm alliance, would be obliged to attack 
Germany. Efforts to preserve the peace of Europe began at once. The 
Triple Entente first asked Austria-Hungary to extend the time limit 
for the answer from Serbia. Austria-Hungary declined to do so. Then 
Great Britain and France urged Serbia to make her answer to the ulti¬ 
matum as conciliatory as possible. After the Serbian reply had been 

delivered, Great Britain.suggested that the four powers not 

directly involved should hold a conference in London to adjust the Austro- 
Serbian difficulty. France, Italy, and Russia accepted the suggestion. 
Germany rejected it. Finally Great Britain invited Germany herself 
to propose some method of mediation, but the German government de¬ 
clared that the whole dispute concerned only Austria-Hungary and 
Serbia and that Russia should not interfere in it. If Russia did inter¬ 
fere, Germany would back her ally.” Russia began to mobilize against 
Austria on July 29. When this occurred Germany took the lead. She 
sent an ultimatum to Russia to stop mobilizing, and called upon France 
to say what she would do. Russia refused to reply and France replied 
that she would do whatever her interests dictated. Germany declared 
war on both, and in marching to attack France violated the neutrality 
of Belgium and thus, by her “scrap of paper” attitude, brought England 
into the War." 

*Webster—World History, pp. 661, 670. 


Outline 

I. Situation After the Balkan Wars 

A. Practical elimination of the Turk from Europe 

B. Settlement unfavorable to Germany and Austria 

1. Route to Constantinople 

2. Seaport of Salonika 

C. The policies of Austria in the Balkans 

D. The policies of Russia in the Balkans 





WORLD HISTORY (100) 559 

II. Austria-Hungary and the Larger Serbia 

A. Austria-Hungary and nationality 

B. Struggle of nationalities for independence 

1. Attitude of the Slavs before the Balkan wars 

a. Possibility of a solution within the Empire 

b. Austrian-Hungarian-Slav state 

2. Attitude after the wars 

a. Agitation for a larger Serbia 

b. Austria resists 

C. The project of the Archduke Ferdinand: Triune State 

HI. The Clash Between Austria-Hungary and Serbia 

A. Assassination of the archduke, June 28, 1914 

B. Agitation in the press 

C. The Austrian note: An ultimatum 

1. Time limit made negotiations impossible 

2. Germany gave Austria carte blanche 

IV. Attempts to Prevent the War 

A. Russian intervention 

1. Advises Serbia to make large concessions 

2. Will stand by Serbia 

B. The English position 

1. Serbia not of concern to them 

2. Turning point of whole situation 

C. Austria breaks with Serbia and arms 

D. England proposes mediation 

1. Russia, France and Italy favorable 

2. Germany opposed to interference between Austria and 
Serbia 

3. Germany urges England to use good offices with Russia 

E. Russia mobilizes against Austria 

V. Germany Takes the Lead 

A. Austria begins to vacillate 

B. Germany sends ultimatum to Russia and summons France 




560 (101) 


WORLD HISTORY 


C. Germany declares war on Russia and France 

VI. The Violation of Belgian Neutrality 

A. Germany demands permission to cross Belgium 

B. France declares she will not violate Belgian neutrality 

C. England asks Germany for same guarantee—The ‘'scrap of 
paper” 

D. Belgium invaded and England declares war 

VII. Europe at War: Warring and Neutral States 

Questions 

1. Explain how the settlement of the Balkan Wars (1913) was un¬ 
favorable to Germany and Austria-Hungary. 

2. Contrast the policy of Austria-Hungary with the policy of Russia 
in regard to the Balkan states. 

3. What races did the Dual Monarchy hold in subjection? What was 
the ratio between the ruling class and the subject classes in Aus¬ 
tria-Hungary ? 

4. What was the solution in prospect for the Slavs in Austria-Hungary 
before the Balkan Wars ? What did they want after the Balkan 
Wars ? 

5. Why was the Archduke Ferdinand assassinated? 

6. What were the points in the Austrian note to Serbia? Which could 
a nation not accept and retain her sovereignty ? 

7. How far was Germany responsible for the note to Austria? 

8. What attempts were made to prevent the War? What nation re¬ 
fused to recognize these attempts ? 

9. What was the role of Germany all through the period from June 
28, 1914 to August 1, 1914? 

10. In what order did the several states declare war and what reason 
or reasons did each give? 

11. When was Belgian neutrality guaranteed and by what nations ? 

12. What is meant by the “scrap of paper”? 

References 

Webster, 665-674; Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 609-616; Hazen, 
608-618; West, 626-630; Elson, 646-652; Hayes and Moon, 713-718; 
Robinson and Beard, II, 692-696 


WORLD HISTORY 


(102) 561 


THE WORLD WAR 
The Course of the War 

The world war began on the Western Front with a campaign in 
Belgium. Germany, in violation of her treaty of neutrality, invaded 
Belgium after Belgium’s refusal to permit passage of troops. Belgian 
resistance gave the French time to mobilize their armies and the English 
time to send to France a small expeditionary force (what the Kaiser 
called “the contemptible army”). After the memorable clash at Mons 
the German Army advanced on Paris. The first battle of the Marne, 
September 6-12, drove the Germans back across the Aisne where they 
entrenched. Then began the race for the Channel ports, the capture of 
which the Allied Armies prevented. The battle line, some six hundred 
miles in length, now extended from the North Sea to the Swiss Border. 
Both sides entrenched and what is called “war of positions” began. 
During the second battle of Ypres the Germans introduced poison gas 
but failed to break the Allied lines. From February to July the Ger¬ 
mans attempted by fierce “assault” to reduce and capture the fortresses 
of Verdun. From July to November the Allies undertook their famous 
counter attack, the battle of the Somme. For the first time “tanks” 
were used. This battle relieved the pressure on Verdun and in the spring 
of 1917 the Germans retired to the “Hindenburg Line”. 

On the Eastern front the Russian Army invaded Prussia but was 
practically annihilated by Hindenburg in the battle of Tannenberg. The 
second Russian offensive in Galicia was checked a second time by Hin¬ 
denburg and the battle line established in the East extended from the 
Gulf of Riga to Rumania. The Russian Army made a third advance 
buf the Revolution prevented its continuance. 

In the Southeast the Central Powers were signally successful. In 
1915 the Austrians, aided by the Germans and later by the Bulgarians, 
crushed Serbia and opened up communications between the Central 
Powers and Turkey. The Allies attempted to open communications with 
Russia by way of the Dardanelles but failed. Italy had joined the Allies 
and had succeeded in establishing the battle line between her and Austria 
on the crest of the Carnic Alps. The failure of the Russian Army, 
owing to the revolution, permitted the withdrawal of large numbers 
of troops by the Central Powers for service on the western and south¬ 
eastern fronts and the Italians were forced back to the Piave River. 
Serbia, Montenegro and most of Rumania were overrun. 

At the end of 1917 the military situation on land decidedly favored 
the Central Powers. They were everywhere successful on the Eastern 
and Southeastern Fronts. Russia had collapsed and ceased all partici¬ 
pation in the war. A situation which favored the Allies, however, was 
the entrance into the conflict of America, who, after a long period of 
neutrality, declared war April 6, 1917. America’s entrance was decided 
by the German outrages, diplomatic intrigues, and unrestricted sub- 


562 (103) 


WORLD HISTORY 


/ 

marine warfare. The Central Powers were favored again early in 1918 
by the final collapse of Russia and the treaty of Brest-Litovsk March 
3, 1918. 

The war on the sea was a different story. The Allies effectively 
blockaded the ports of the Central Powers. Germany’s attempt to 
break this blockade by unrestricted submarine warfare served to bring 
the United States into the war. 

In 1918 the Germans began their famous drive for victory. “The 

drive opened on March 21, 1918.This great offensive, the 

greatest of the war, opened auspiciously and for three months” was 
eminently successful. “It was ushered in by the greatest gas attack 
Europe had ever known; also by a long-distance bombardment of Paris 
by a new gun of greater range than any previous gun had possessed. 

Not many graver moments, if any, have ever occurred in history. 
The world stood gripped by an intensity of anxiety and apprehension,, 
painful, heart-sinking, intolerable. Particularly in America did a great 
and desolating wave of dread and foreboding sweep over the public mind. 
Minutes seemed like hours and hours like weeks, so racking was the 
suspense. Had we arrived too late? We had been so slow in seeing 
our duty, in recognizing our responsibility in the desperate drama of 
our times, we had finally entered the war so unprepared, that it seemed 
only too likely that we were to pay, and that the world was to pay, a 
grievous price for our tardy perception and decision. And would that 
price include, for us, not only national insecurity, but national dishonor 
and disgrace ? The answer to these questions hung upon events, and 
events thus far had not been reassuring, had, on the contrary, seemed 
to be converging toward disaster. 

So desperate was the situation in mid-summer 1918, that the French 
Government was prepared at any moment to leave Paris, as it had done 
in 1914. But this moment was never to come. For Marshal Foch now 
struck a blow which freed Paris from danger, and which inaugurated 
a new and, as we now see, the final phase of the war. On July 18 he 
assumed the offensive”,* won a Second Battle of the Marne and in a 
succession of offensives drove the Germans back to the famous “Hinden- 
burg Line”. From then on the Allies were successful in their military # 
operations. One by one Germany’s allies collapsed and were eliminated 
from the war. The German political system failed and Germany herself 
sought peace and signed an armistice on November 11, 1918. 


*Hazen—Modern European History, pp. 661, 664. 





WORLD HISTORY 


(104) 563 


Outline 

I. The First Three Years of War, 1914-1917 

A. The War on the Continent 

1. The campaign in Belgium and France 

a. The battle of the Marne, September, 1914 

b. The race for the channel 

c. Trench warfare 

d. Belgian atrocities 

2. The campaign against Russia 

a. Russian victories: East Prussia, Galicia, Brusilov’s 
Drive 

b. German victories: Hindenburg’s Drive 

3. The crushing of Serbia, 1915—Bulgaria enters war 

4. War in the East: Gallipoli, Mesopotamia 

5. Verdun and the Somme 

6. The Hindenburg Line 

7. The war in Italy and Roumania 

8. Greece joins allies 

9. Dominating position of Germany on the continent 

B. War on the Sea 

1. German fleet bottled up 

2. Blockade and submarines 

3. The Lusitania affair 

C. The Russian revolution, March 1917 

1. Overthrow of the old government 

2. Influence on participation in war 

3. The Soviets—The Bolsheviki 

D. War outside of Europe 

II. Entrance of America Into the War, April, 1917 

A. Period of neutrality, 1914-1917 

B. Causes for American entry 

C. What it meant for the allies: men, resources, morale 

D. Could it give aid in time? 

E. War aims and preparations 


564 (105) 


WORLD HISTORY 


III. Germany’s Great Effort of 1918 

A. Russia defeated 

B. The great German drive in the west—Initial success in west 

C. The American army—Pershing 

D. The offensives of the allies 

IV. The Victories of the Allies 

A. Defeat of Germany’s allies outside of Europe 

B. Allied army defeats Bulgarians and Austrians 

C. Victorious advance of the allied armies on western front 

D. The German revolution 

E. German peace offers 

V. The Armistice, November 11, 1918 

A. The fourteen points, the basis 

B. Terms of the armistice 

VI. Problems at Close of War 

A. Money and material cost of war 

B. Human cost of war 

C. Devastated territories 

D. Nationality and self-determination 

E. Organization of democratic governments 

Questions 

1. (a) Why did Germany attack Belgium? (b) What was her ob¬ 
jective? (c) Why did the world feel such a revulsion against 
Germany for this attack ? 

2. Why is the Battle of the Marne, Sept., 1914, considered of so great 
importance ? 

3. What was Germany’s objective after the battle of the Marne? 

4. Describe the various fronts on whkh the war was fought from 
1914-1917. 


WORLD HISTORY 


(106) 565 


5. Why did the great German fleet play so little part in the war ? 

6. What effect had the Russian Revolution on the course of the war? 

7. What brought America into the war in 1917? What effect had her 
entry on the course of the war ? 

8. What was the treaty of Brest-Litovsk and what were its terms ? 

* 

9. (a) Why did Germany make her great effort in 1918? (b) In 

what did it consist? 

10. Name the states adhering to the allies and those to the Central 
Powers in 1918. 

11. What caused the revolution in Germany and Austria-Hungary? 

12. What was the date of the armistice and on what was it based ? 

13. Make a map of the world with boundaries of 19*14 showing all the 
nations that took part in the war and to which side they belonged. 

14. What was the human cost of the war? Which nations suffered 
most? 

15. How was the war financed ? 

References 

Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 617-650; Webster, 674-705; West, 
631-650; Hazen, 619-674; Elson, 653-695; Hayes and Moon, 721-756; 
Robinson and Beard, II, 697-738. 

* 

THE PEACE CONFERENCE 
and the 

LEAGUE OF NATIONS 

“An armistice is a mere suspension of hostilities. It is the first 
step toward peace, yet it does not always lead to peace. An armistice 
is concluded quickly under the pressure of circumstances with but little 
time for deliberation. A peace, however, if it is to be enduring and 
particularly after a war that has swept the whole world within its de¬ 
structive range, must be the product of long consideration and reflection. 
. Thus after the armistice of November 11 and after the exe¬ 
cution of its immediate provisions for the weakening of the enemy, the 
surrender of his fleet, the occupation of a part of his land, men turned 

toward the far more difficult work of making peace. 

On examination, how amazingly complicated the task! The variety 
and gravity of the problems demanding solution far exceeded those of 
the Congress of Vienna. Those problems fell naturally into several 




566 (107) WORLD HISTORY 

main classes.” The first problem was the reestablishment of old and 
the establishment of new international institutions. “The whole body 
of international law.in this most lawless of wars, must be painfully 


and laboriously reconstructed anew. One of the ideas which had 

been much discussed during the war was that of a new international 
organization, which should be designed and empowered to prevent the 
recurrence of such a hideoeus catastrophe as that which was then dev¬ 
astating and desolating the world and which inevitably would leave a 
heavy, heartless heritage of sorrow and of debt for long, long years 

to come. The old diplomacy, with its alliances, frequently 

secret, with its intrigues, with its general irresponsibility to the peoples 
whose destinies it assumed to control, must give way to a new diplomacy, 
open and above the board, dedicated to the task of eliminating jealousies, 
rivalries and hatreds and of introducing and encouraging the spirit of 
friendliness and cooperation among the nations. Particularly must war 
be outlawed .. 

But a league of nations that could prevent war or even render it 
less probable could not remain a mere aspiration; it must be translated 
into a definite organization, with definite powers and obligations, and 
with a machinery for achieving its lofty purpose.”* Former efforts, 
such as the plan of William Penn, of Immanuel Kant, of St. Pierre and 
of the Hague Court, have failed. The League of Nations has a Council, 
an Assembly, a Secretariat, A Permanent Court of International Justice 
and various Commissions for dealing with questions to be settled. The 
signatory powers assume certain obligations, such as, the submitting 
of international disputes to arbitration, the limiting of armaments, the 
economic and the social boycott of nations that break their covenant, 
and the defense of territorial integrity and political independence of 
all members of the League against external aggression. President 
Wilson was very much in earnest about introducing this new machinery 
into the treaty itself. He made many concessions in order to have the 
League accepted by the European powers because he felt that the League 
was the most important phase of the treaty. He it is who was re¬ 
sponsible for its final adoption. But when Wilson brought the Treaty 
and the Covenant of the League back to the United States the Senate 
refused to ratify them. It was made a subject of political controversy 
and like all questions of partisan controversy has been so distorted as to 
be little understood. 

The second problem was territorial readjustment. The war had 
resulted in the disintegration of four great Empires—What should the 
Peace Conference do with the territory? Out of the disintegrated old 
Empires new states such as Poland, Czecho-Slovakia, Jugo-Slavia, the 
new Baltic states and states of Asia Minor were formed for the peoples 
whose national aspirations had long been thwarted. Other states, France, 
Roumania, Italy, Greece and the state of Serbia were enlarged by an 
establishment of their boundaries along the lines of self-determina- 


*Hazen—Modern European History, pp. 680, 686, 688-680. 







WORLD HISTORY 


(108) 567 


tion. Rhine t territory was dismantled of its forts. The Saar Valley 
was given to France for fifteen years to furnish coal in return for the 
French coal mines destroyed by the Germans. The Adriatic question 
was difficult because the new Jugo-Slav state bordered on the Adriatic 
and Italy claimed that shore for herself. What complicated that sit¬ 
uation more was a secret treaty between the Allies and Italy made in 
1915. On this point President Wilson stood for Fiume being left as 
a free port for the new Jugo-Slav state. Danzig, previously a German 
city, was made a free city under the League of Nations in order to 
provide an outlet to the sea for Poland. The Silesian and Schleswig- 
Holstein questions were settled by plebiscites. Turkey continued to 
be as it had been for years, a difficult problem, difficult not only because 
of the Turk, but because of the attitude of the European Nations in 
using the Turk to play their own diplomatic games. New states were 
set up out of the Turk’s Asiatic territory and given as mandates to 
European states. It was attempted to make Constantinople a free 
port but this was not accomplished. It and its immediately surrounding 
territory remained Turkish. What remained of European Turkey was 
given to Greece. 

The third problem before the Conference was that of reparations and 
responsibility for the war. The reparations question was not settled 
as to amount to be paid but the responsibility was fixed on Germany. 
President Wilson tried to modify the harshness of the terms that Euro¬ 
pean statesmen wished to enforce. 

The Treaty was signed by the German delegates June 28, 1919 and 
ratified by the German government early in July. On January 10, 1920 
France, Italy and Great Britain exchanged ratifications—the great war 
was ended—peace was officially established. The Treaty was probably the 
best that could be made under the circumstances. But, as we shall see 
later, it did not settle all the problems that brought on the war. 

Outline 

I. The Peace Conference Assembles at Paris 

A. Membership in the Conference 

B. The Supreme Council—“The Big Four”—“The Big Three” 

C. American Participation 

1. President Wilson in Europe 

a. Reason for going 

b. Reception in Paris, London, Rome 

c. His fourteen points and the armistice 

d. His influence in shaping the peace 

2. Attempt to do justice to all 

3. Modifying influence on European passions 


568 (109) 


WORLD HISTORY 


II. The Problems of the Conference 

A. The organization of the world: The League of Nations 

B. Territorial settlements 

1. The disintegration of four empires: Russia, Austria- 
Hungary, Germany, Turkey—What to do with territory 

2. The formation of new states: Poland, Czecho-Slovakia, 
New Baltic States, States of Asia Minor, Jugo-Slavia 

3. Enlarged states: France, Roumania, Italy, Greece 

4. The Rhine and Saar Valley: Coal and “self-determina¬ 
tion” 

5. The Adriatic question: Jugo-Slavia and Italian ambi¬ 
tions 

6. The problem of Danzig and Poland 

7. The questions of Silesia and Schleswig-Holstein 

8. The Turkish problem: Constantinople, New states 

C. Reparations and responsibilities 

III. The New Map of Europe 

The League of Nations 

I. World Organization and The League of Nations 

A. Former attempts to effect world organization 

1. 17th, 18th and 19th century efforts 

2. The Hague Conference 

B. International anarchy—“The Inevitable Next War” 

C. League’s attempt at world organization 

II. The Nature of the League 

A. A mutual pledge of nations to prevent war 

1. Submission of international disputes to arbitration 

2. The limitation of armaments 

3. Economic and social boycott of Covenant-breakers 

4. Defense of the integrity and independence of nations 

B. The machinery of the organization: Council, Assembly, Sec¬ 
retariat, Permanent Court, Commissions 

C. A permanent international agency to solve difficulties 

D. Attitude on economic and social questions 


WORLD HISTORY 


(110) 569 


III. The Formation of The League 

A. The difficulties in the way 

B. The making of the Covenant 

1. Its origins and relation to the treaty 

2. How it became a part of the treaty 

IV. The Position of the United States 

A. Refused to ratify the treaty or enter the League 

B. League of Nations made a political issue 

C. America’s place among the nations 

V. Service of League in World History Thus Far 

Questions 

The Peace Conference 

1. (a) Why did America take part in the Peace Conference? (b) Did 
she ever take part in any European conference before? 

2. Why did President Wilson go to Paris? 

3. (a) What are the articles of the Fourteen Points? (b) What pur¬ 
pose did they serve in ending the war? 

4. What three kinds of problems did the Paris Conference have to 
solve? Explain each fully. 

5. (a) What new states were set up as a result of the war? (b) What 
states were enlarged as a result of the war? (c) What made it 
possible to do these two things? 

6. What conditions were imposed upon Germany in regard to the 
Rhine Valley? 

7. (a) What was the settlement in regard to the Saar Valley? (b) 
How did it clash with Art. 5 of the Fourteen Points? 

8. (a) What do you mean by the Adriatic question? (b) What was 
the secret treaty of London? 

9. What was President Wilson’s attitude on Fiume? Why? 

10. What was the problem of Danzig and Poland? How settled? 

11. What was the problem of Silesia and of Schleswig-Holstein? 

12. What was the Turkish problem? What is its status today? 


570 


( 111 ) 


WORLD HISTORY 


13. What means are provided for the enforcement of the Treaty of Ver¬ 
sailles ? 

14. In what respect is the Treaty of Versailles an advance over any 
other treaty in history? 

15. Color a map showing Europe as it was left by the Treaty of Ver¬ 
sailles, 1918. 

Questions 

The League of Nations 

• # 

1. (a) Why does the world need organization? (b) What former 
efforts have been made for organization? (c) Why did they fail? 

2. For what purpose was the League of Nations organized? What 
means have been provided in the covenant to attain that purpose ? 

3. What is the nature of the League? 

4. (a) What were the difficulties in the way of forming the League? 
(b) Compare with the difficulties in the way of forming the Con¬ 
stitution of the United States of America. 

5. Explain the relation of the covenant of the League to the Treaty 
of Versailles. 

6. What are the conditions of Membership in the League? 

7. What is the machinery of the organization of the League? 

8. (a)What means are provided for the prevention of disputes? (b) 
What means are provided for the settlement of disputes? (c) What 
punishment is provided for members of the League that break 
their covenants? 

9. (a) What are the agreements affecting treaties? (b) How can the 
League be amended? 

10. W’hat is a Mandatory? How are the Mandatories controlled? 

References 

The Covenant of the League; Robinson, Breasted and Smith, 652- 
658; Webster, 707-730; West, 651-662; Elson, 698-728; Hayes and 
Moon, 756-782; Hazen, 680-693; Munro and Ozanne, Social Civics 
(Macmillan) 606-642 (especially valuable). 


WORLD HISTORY 


(112) 571 


THE WORLD TODAY 

Events since the signing of the Treaty of Versailles indicate that 
that treaty did not settle some of the territorial questions it hoped to 
settle. The Fiume dispute grew out of the Adriatic question. The 
Russo-Polish war was a war over territory. The war between Turkey 
and Greece is the old “Eastern Question” cropping out again. Inter¬ 
national subterfuge and diplomatic intrigue of European Powers are 
again in evidence in this contest. 

The nationalist movement led to the establishment of the Irish Free 
State, and is the source of the Indian unrest and the Egyptian demands 
for independence. Great social movements are worth consideration— 
the radical socialists (“reds”) have a great world organization known 
as the Third International—the English Labor party is questioning the 
doctrine of business for profit rather than for service—the Russian Bol- 
sheviki experiment in government continues. 

Movements for universal peace are significant—The League of Na¬ 
tions holds sessions—The Washington Disarmament Conference granted 
a “naval holiday”, wrote some new sections in international law, ar¬ 
ranged the Four Power Treaty and settled some knotty Pacific problems. 

After studying history thus far “it is quite natural to ask the 
question, ‘When all is said and done, what has been the.net result of 
history?’ How far has civilization progressed, and what are the ob¬ 
stacles that confront it? How does history help us to understand the 
problems with which the world must grapple today—and tomorrow? 
These questions each student must answer for himself or herself as 
intelligently and honestly as he or she can. But perhaps the answers 
may be made more easily if in this concluding chapter we take a sur¬ 
vey of the chief features of contemporary civilization, as they appear 
in the light of history”.* Human beings must have food, clothing, shel¬ 
ter, and if they live outside the torrid areas, must have fuel. And 
other things being equal, the accumulation of these in abundance per¬ 
mits time to develop the “arts of civilization”. The development of 
machino-facture has greatly increased the supply of food, clothing, shel¬ 
ter, and fuel, but it has also concentrated vast numbers of people in the 
manufacturing centers. Commerce has expanded until the whole world 
is one big trading house, and more people are concentrated in the trad¬ 
ing centers. The development of “big business” organizations has led 
to the organization of the workers so that “collective bargaining” could 
be possible, so organization might deal with organization. 

Our civilization rests on a substratum of scientific knowledge. The 
physical sciences make it possible to produce the oil, rubber, steel, food¬ 
stuffs, electricity, etc., so essential to our welfare. The biological sci¬ 
ences make it possible to develop animals and plants and to combat 
disease. Even much of our recreation is dependnt on the sciences, mus- 


♦Hayes and Moon—Modern History, page 818. 





572 (113) 


WORLD HISTORY 


ical instruments, the “movies”, the radio, the automobile, books, etc. 
It would be impossible for so large a number of people to live in our 
large cities if science had not made possible the production of an abun¬ 
dance of things necessary to life. Our civilization has developed with 
the development of science and invention. 

Life has been made more worth while by the introduction of many 
social reforms. Woman has gained greater economic independence; uni¬ 
versal suffrage (now largely the practice) has given her a voice in her 
government; labor legislation has protected her against excessive de¬ 
mands on her health and strength. The child has been given a better 
chance to develop into a healthy and useful citizen; compulsory educa¬ 
tion, child labor laws, child welfare societies and better homes mean a 
freer and more beautiful childhood. Public universal education is es¬ 
sential in a democracy. It gives every one a better chance to succeed, 
enlarges his opportunities for usefulness to his country and to all so¬ 
ciety. Religion has become tolerant; Catholic, Protestant, Jew, and 
those of other religious faiths, live in harmony with each other. The 
terrible persecutions of the past are now known to be relics of barbar¬ 
ism. Man has religious freedom—the right to worship in his own way. 
The churches are doing more social work, are fitting into modern life 
and adopting modem ideas of social service. There is yet great lack 
of unity among churches but there are evidences pointing toward greater 
cooperation. Missionaries have spread the gospel to the farthermost 
comers of the earth. Christianity, the religion of western civilization, 
has more followers than any other faith. Its followers number little 
more than one-third of the world’s peoples. The lot of the worker is 
much better than it was during the early part of the nineteenth century. 
The hours are shorter, wages better, and the standard of living higher, 
but there yet remains much to be done. Music, art, literature, and the 
“movies” exert a profound influence on modern life. Jazz music, cheap 
art and cheap literature are forces to be reckoned with. But the great¬ 
est of all forces moulding public sentiment and public morals is the 
“movie”. 

Democratic government is one of the greatest achievements of 
Western civilization, but “it would be idle to regard democratic govern¬ 
ment everywhere as an unqualified success. No scheme of political or¬ 
ganization will of itself secure a government which is both efficient and 
popular. The active efforts of the people are required to achieve this 
end. Not merely the consent of the governed but the participation of 

the governed is essential. Democracy is what the people make it, 

and its faults point to the defects of human nature. 

No form of government gives the citizen so much as democracy, 
and none makes greater demands upon him in return. We are too 
much concerned about the rights of men and women; far too little con¬ 
cerned about their obligations to society, to the state, and to their fel¬ 
low-men. Voting at elections is but a small part of the citizen’s duty. 




WORLD HISTORY 


(114) 573 


His share in the forming of a sound and enlightened public opinion con¬ 
stitutes an obligation upon him every day in the year. Democracy 

has passed through many raging storms.But it survived and grew 

stronger than before. Without the faith of the people in it, and the 
work which is the exemplification of faith, democracy can accomplish 
nothing; with these things, there is no problem that it need fear to face”.f 

“The world, which seemed so large to our forefathers, to us seems 
very small and compact. Railroads, steamships, and airplanes bind the 
nations together, and the telegraph, the submarine cable, and the ‘wire¬ 
less’ keep them in constant communication. The oceans, no longer bar¬ 
riers, serve as highways uniting East and West, Orient and Occident. 
Commerce and finance are international; capital finds investment in for¬ 
eign countries as readily as at home; and trade unionism, labor legis¬ 
lation, and socialism become common to all the world. National isolation 
disappears as ideas and ideals tour the globe. 

Everywhere people build the same houses, use the same furniture, 
and eat the same food. Everywhere they enjoy the same amusements 
and distractions: concerts, ‘moving pictures’,the theater,clubs,magazines, 
automobiles. They also dress alike.The world has become one great 
family and the arts of civilization are its treasured heirlooms. These 
heirlooms we must guard with our lives if need be. The unity of peo¬ 
ples must be maintained—and disturbance affects all people. 

All this does not imply that things are what they should be. There 
are still many social, economic and political wrongs that thwart the 
just aspirations of mankind. Until every individual gets a “square deal” 
our civilization will be found wanting. It is the business of each one 
of us to help right the wrongs humanity must now endure. 

tMonroe and Ozanne—Social Civics, pp. 660, 061. 

JWebster—World History, 625. 


Outline 

Recent Events in World History 

I. The New Map of Europe—Post War Problems 

A. F-iume Dispute 

B. The Russo-Polish War, 1919-20 

C. The Turko-Grecian War 

1. Smyrna Disaster 

2. Lusanne Conference 

3. The “Eastern Question” not settled 

II. British Post War Problems 

A. Egyptian demands for independence 





574 (115) 


WORLD HISTORY 


B. Nationalist movement in India 

C. The organization of the Irish Free State 

D. English labor party programs 

III. Other Events of World Significance 

A. The Sessions of the League of Nations 

B. The Socialists and the Third International 

C. The Washington Disarmament Conference 

D. The continuation of the Russian Revolution 

Western Civilization 

I. The Economic Basis of Western Civilization 

A. The economic determinants 

1. Food—clothing—shelter—fuel 

2. Conservation of natural resources 

B. Production of goods 

1. Labor saving machinery and machino-facture 

2. Factory system of production—great trusts 

C. Distribution and exchange of goods 

1. Steam and electric railway transportation 

2. Steamship transportation 

3. The airplane and automobile 

4. Money, banks and credit necessary 

D. Big business a new social problem 

1. “Big Business” and the problem of profit 

2. Labor unions and collective bargaining 

» 

II. The Scientific Substratum of Western Civilization 

A. Physical Sciences affect every day life 

1. The atomic theory and the applications of chemistry: oil,, 
rubber, steel, foodstuffs 

2. Geology: the age of the earth, coal, oil 

3. Electricity: telegraph, telephone, wireless, light, power, 
X-rays 

4. The phonograph and the “movies” 

B The services of the biological sciences 


WORLD HISTORY 


(116) 575 


1. The cell theory of life 

2. Germs produce disease—antiseptics and health 

3. Medicine and surgery—decline in death rate 

4. The doctrine of evolution and the possibility of gradual 
improvement 

III. Human Values in Western Civilization 

A. Social reforms make life better 

1. Reforms in treatment of defectives and criminlas 

2. Prohibition of liquor traffic 

3. Improvement of status of women: economic independence, 
universal suffrage, labor legislation 

4. Childhood better protected—child labor laws 

B. Public education enhances individual opportunity 

C. Religion fundamental in human life 

1. Development of religious toleration 

2. Social work of churches 

3. Growth of missions 

4. Lack of unity among churches 

D. Concentration of population 

1. Slums and need of better housing 

2. Play grounds and recreation centers essential to moral 
welfare 

E. The labor day and the living wage are fundamental in social 
welfare 

F. Need of lightening burdens of farm labor 

G. Literature—art—music—“the movies” 

IV. Democratic Government a Development of Western Civilization 

A. Intelligent public opinion dependent on the press 

B. The voters make the government: duty to be intelligent 

C. “Cheap politicians” 

% 

V. Western Civilization and International Unity 

A. Unity of trade and commerce 

B. Unity of news and information 


576 (117) 


WORLD HISTORY 


C. Unity of communications—cables and the wireless 

D. Unity in religion—western Christianity 

F. Need of universal peace 

1. Awful destruction of modem war 

2. Secret diplomacy not democratic 

3. Arbitration of disputes necessary 

4. Staggering cost of modern armament 

VI. History—The Story of Man’s Progress 

Questions 

1. What international disputes occurred over the new map of Europe? 

2. Why is the “Eastern Question” not yet settled? 

3. What is being done with the Indian and Egyptian agitation for 
independence ? 

4. What is the nature of the Third International? 

5. What was accomplished by the Washington disarmament confer¬ 
ence ? 

6. What do we mean by Western Civilization? 

7. Why do we call food, clothing, shelter and fuel the economic de¬ 
terminants of Western Civilization? 

8. How does machino-facture increase production of goods ? 

9. Why are banks necessary in the exchange of goods? 

10. What inventions make modem commerce possible? 

11. What are the most valuable things that science has contributed to 
civilization ? 

12. What social reforms and social changes have made human life more 
worth while? 

13. How are labor and wages related to human welfare and happiness ? 

14. Why should citizens of a Republic be intelligent? 

15. Show how Western Civilization is an international unity and why 
universal international peace is necessary. 

16. Why is history a valuable study? 

References 

Webster, 593-603, 609-611, 620-649, 730-732; Robinson, Breasted and 
Smith, 569-572, 589-590, 659-667; West, 664-669; Elson, 724-728; 
Hayes and Moon, 811-854; Robinson and Beard, II, 658-674. 


WORLD HISTORY 

APPENDIX 


(118) 577 


Brief List of Text Books 

♦Books referred to in this course 
tAdvanced booKs—especially valuable to teachers 
§Designed for two year course 
JEspecially valuable in Ancient History 


JBreasted—Ancient Times 

Ginn 

*Elson—Modern Times and the Living Past 
Emerton—Introduction to the Middle Ages (ex¬ 

A. B. C. 

cellent for beginners) 

Ginn 

*Hayes and Moon—Modem History 

Macmillan 

*Hazen—Modem European History 
fHayes—A Political and Social History of Mod¬ 

Holt 

em Europe (2 vols.) 

Macmillan 

§*Robinson and Breasted—Outlines of European 


History, Part II 

Ginn 

§*Robinson and Beard—Outlines of European His¬ 


tory, Part II 

Ginn , 

*Robinson, Breasted and Smith—A General His¬ 


tory of Europe 

Ginn 

fThorndike—The History of Medieval Europe 
fShapiro—Modern and Contemporary European 

Houghton Mifflin 

History 

Houghton Mifflin 

*West—World Progress 

Allyn & Bacon 

§West—Early Progress 

Allyn & Bacon 

§West—Modem Progress 

Allyn & Bacon 

* Webster—World History 

Heath 

§Webster—Early European History 

Heath 

§Webster—Modern European History 

Heath 

JWebster—Ancient History 

Heath 


Brief List of Sources 


Davis—Reading’s in Ancient History (2 vols.) 
Greece and the East 
Rome and the West 

Ogg—A Source Book of Medieval History 
Robinson—Readings in European History 
(Abridged Ed.) 

Webster—Readings in Ancient History 
Webster—Readings in Medieval and Modern His¬ 
tory 

Webster—Historical Source Book 


Allyn & Bacon 


A. B. C. 

Ginn 

Heath 

Heath 

Heath 



578 (119) 


WORLD HISTORY 


Brief List of Library References 


Prehistoric Times 

Clodd—The Story of Primitive Man 
Myers—The Dawn of History 
Starr—Some First Steps in Human Progress (out 
of print) 


The Orient 

Breasted—History of the Ancient Egyptians 
Hogarth—The Ancient East 

Jastrow—The Civilization of Babylonia and As¬ 
syria 


Appleton 

Holt 

Chautauqua, N. Y. 

Scribner 

Holt 

Lippincott 


Greece 


Baikie—The Sea Kings of Crete 
Bury—History of Greece to the Death of Alex¬ 
ander 

Cox—The Athenian Empire 
Hopkinson—Greek Leaders 
Tucker—The Life in Ancient Athens 
Gayley—Classic Myths 


Macmillan 

Macmillan 
Longmans 
Houghton Mifflin 
Macmillan 
Ginn 


Rome 


Beesly—The Gracchi, Marius & Sulla 
Bury—The Roman Empire to 180 A. D. 

Capes—Early Roman Empire 
Fowler—Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero 
How and Leigh—History of Rome to the Death 
of Caesar 

Pelham—Outlines of Roman History 


Longmans 
A. B. C. 
Longmans 
Macmillan 

Longmans 

Putnam 


Middle Ages 


Adams—Civilization During the Middle Ages 
Davis—Medieval Europe (Home Uni.) 

Cheyney—Industrial and Social History of Eng¬ 
land 

Emerton—Introduction to the Study of the Middle 
Ages 

Guerber—Legends of the Middle Ages 
Tappan—When Knights Were Bold 


Scribner 

Holt 

Ginn 

Ginn 
A. B. C. 

Houghton Mifflin 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


(120) 579 


Modern Times 


Cheney—European Background of American His¬ 
tory 

Davis, Anderson and Tyler—Roots of the War 
Eggleston—The Transit of Civilization 
Fisher—Napoleon (Home Uni.) 

Gardiner—French Revolution 
Hayes—Modem Europe (2 vols.) 

Hayes—The Great War 
Hazen—Europe since 1815 

Johnston—The Opening Up of Africa (Home Uni.) 
Ogg—Social Progress in Contemporary Europe 
Rose—The Development of the European Nations 
Turner—Europe 1789-1920 


Harper 

Century 

Appleton 

Holt 

Longmans 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Holt 

Holt 

Macmillan 

Putnam 

Doubleday, Page 


General 


♦Elementary but exceptionally valuable for young people. 


*Beard and Bagley—Our Old World Background 
Creasy—Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World 
Herrick—History of Industry and Commerce 
Marion—The Living Past 


Macmillan 
Dutton 
Macmillan 
Oxford Uni. 


N. Y. 


Quennel & Quennel—A History of Everyday 
Things in England 

*Van Loon—Story of Mankind (School Ed.) 
Wells—The Outline of History 


Scribners 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 


Press, 


Historical Maps 


Webster, Knowlton and Hazen—European History Maps 

Minimum: A. H. 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18 ; M. M. 1 to M. M. 28 inclusive 

A.J. Nystrom & Co., Chicago 
Breasted, Harding and Huth—History Maps 

Minimum: B. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16 ; H. 1 to H. 28 inclusive 

Denoyer-Geppert Co., Chicago 
Westerman—Historical Maps Rand, McNally Co., Chicago 

Minimum: full series 




BOTANY 

ANNIE MOGENSEN 

Instructor in Botany , Hastings High School 


Botany 

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

The first attention given plants as plants was for the purpose of 
discovering which are useful to man as food, in the arts, and in med¬ 
icine. From the time when Aristotle and Theophrastus added to this 
a crude classification down to the present time many people have felt 
and still feel that Botany and taxonomy (classification) are one and the 
same thing. It was not until early in the eighteenth century, with the 
bringing into more general use of the microscope, that new phases of 
Botany began to be developed—those dealing with the structure and 
development of plants. Only mature plant bodies interested botanists, 
until the gradual increase in the knowledge of the cell as the basis of liv¬ 
ing bodies, developed the field of plant anatomy. Later plant morphology, 
embryology, and organology occupied the attention of those interested 
in the subject; and still later much attention was given and is still given 
to economic botany and forestry. The scope of the subject is ever wid¬ 
ening, new phases and new interests being added. 

“A real elementary knowledge of Botany should include something 
from all the principal divisions of the subject. For example, a begin¬ 
ning student should know how plants must relate themselves to their 
surroundings in order to live. He should know how plants make food 
and use it, how they are irritable and respond to stimuli, and how they 
produce.. He should also learn something of the essential structures 
of the great groups so he may know the make-up of a toadstool, moss, 
fern, flowering plant, etc. In addition he should have some general 
knowledge as to how plants are put into great natural groups or fam¬ 
ilies, and he should be able to discover the names of the most important 
plants of his vicinity.”* 

What boy or girl has not an abundance of natural curiosity to serve 
as an incentive to study plants ? What boy or girl has no interest in 
growing things as is evidenced by a potted flower or a garden plot? 
That plants breathe, drink and eat, and that they must have air, water 
and food and how, without the power of locomotion, they are able to 
get these things, will arouse and hold the interest of high school stu¬ 
dents. The resourceful teacher will be kept busy satisfying the in¬ 
quisitiveness of the investigating minds of her pupils. 

The accompanying outline is submitted for the purpose of answering 
the initial questions and providing the impetus and inspiration for fur¬ 
ther study and investigation. Naturally the course must be quite ele¬ 
mentary but it will be well worth while if it but leave the student with 


♦Compton’s Pictured Encyclopedia. 



BOTANY 


(6) 583 


a new or renewed interest in the subject and with a vision as to its 
possibilities. 

For the course the Department is indebted to Miss Annie Mogensen, 
Instructor in Botany, Hastings high school, and to her expresses its 
appreciation. 

Dr. J. E. Weaver, Professor of Botany, University of Nebraska, 
has read the course and has given it his approval. 

For any changes in the course due to editing and in making it con¬ 
form to the other courses with which it is to appear the undersigned 
assumes responsibility. 


A. L. B. 


584 (7) 


BOTANY 


OUTLINE OF COURSES 

Aims of the Course 

Botany, the study of the living plant, has a two fold purpose. First, 
to create in the student an appreciation of the value of plants as 
a part of life, since they have a vital importance in human welfare. Com¬ 
bining this idea with that of agriculture, the above can be most success¬ 
fully accomplished. Second, to cultivate in him a love for nature to help 
him enjoy life more fully by giving him a new vision of interest in a 
field of corn, a grove of trees, or even a waste of weeds. 

The outline includes all the general phases of an elementary botany 
course. Emphasis has been placed on the physiological activities of the 
plant in relation to structure and environment. No attempt has been 
made to state the length of time to spend on any part of the course. 
This has been left to the discretion of the teacher due to the fact that 
local conditions will, to a greater or less extent, influence the importance 
of parts of the course. 


Laboratory Work 

The laboratory method of presentation has been used as the means 
of attack. The student learns to investigate for hiimself before taking 
the statements from the text. The text thus comes into its place as a 
help in giving him the information and experience of others as a sup¬ 
plement to his own work. 

The plan of carrying out the laboratory experiments will depend 
upon the amount of room and equipment. The ideal way is for each 
student or for small groups to do the experimenting. However very 
satisfactory results can be obtained by a demonstration of the experiment 
before the class with each student making his own observations and 
drawing conclusions for himself. 

The experiments included in the outline do not require elaborate 
apparatus in any case, and any resourceful teacher should be able to 
demonstrate them easily. Compound microscopes are necessary for the 
structure studies and as far as possible the students should learn to 
find the desired material themselves. 

* 

The laboratory work should be written in good form and kept in 
a notebook. Sufficient drawings, well labelled, should be made to illus¬ 
trate the work of the experiment and structures seen. 

It is evident that there can be no special set laboratory days. After 
the laboratory work for a definite problem or for a sub-project has 
been completed a discussion of the work and additional text book work 
should follow. 


BOTANY 


(8) 585 


No one laboratory manual has been used so that no limitations have 
been made, and many supplementary experiments might easily be used. 

Field Work 

The field work must be well organized to get the proper results. 
The amount of this work will depend upon the locality and conditions 
of weather. With this in mind the field work has been brought into 
the first and last parts of the outline. 

INTRODUCTORY 

(The following introductory topics are merely to give the students 
a slight insight into the subject.) 

I. The plant a living organism. 

II. Parts of the plant in general. 

III. The plant cell, its protoplasm and properties. 

IV. Relation of plant and animal life. 

V. Importance of plants. 

VI. How the knowledge of botany helps us. 

Readings: 

See Appropriate Topics in text and reference books hereinafter 
listed. 

DETERMINING THE VALUE OF A FLOWER 

INTRODUCTORY 

Laboratory study with reference work: 

1. The parts of a simple flower. Draw and label parts. Suggested 
flowers—petunia, morning-glory, nasturtium. 

2. The parts of a composite flower as compared with a simple 
flower and with different specimens of composites. Suggested 
flowers—sunflower, dandelion, thistle, gum-weed. 

POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION 
Problems and topics: 

1. Relation of flowers to their insect visitors. (Field work if pos¬ 
sible.) 

2. Wind pollination of flowers. 

3. Value of cross-pollination. 


586 (9) 


BOTANY 


4. Why are farmers alarmed at hot winds during the tasseling 
stage of corn? 

5. Why encourage the raising of bees in an orchard ? 

FRUITS AND THEIR USES 

Problems and topics: 

1. What is a fruit? 

2. Types of fruit. (Collect types and analyze.) 

3. What is the value of the fruit to the plant? 

4. How are the various fruits especially adapted to the agents of 
distribution? Determine for the collected specimens. 

5. Of what economic importance are fruits and seeds? 

6. Why does a corn plant growing alone produce imperfect ears? 

Why not plant field and sweet com together? 

• 

7. What common market “vegetables” are included in the botan- 
nical term “fruit”? 

8. How are new varieties of fruits and seeds produced ? 

Readings: 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Chapters VII, VIII, IX be¬ 
ginning with Seed Distribution, and XXIII. 

Allen and Gilbert—Text Book of Botany, Chapters XVII, XVIII, and 
XXIII. 

Atkinson—Botany for Schools, Chapters XVII-XXIII, and XLIII. 
Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Chapters VIII, IX, and VI 
in Part II. 

Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Chapters XVI and XVII. 

Andrews—Practical Course in Botany, Chapters VII and VIII. 


The Sunflower 

(A Project) 

Proj ect: 

Why should the sunflower be destroyed? Note—This is a project 
to be worked out by the class in the field. Measure the area covered 
by the spread of the plant with its leaves, count the flowers in the 
heads, and determine the seed possibility. 


BOTANY 


(10) 587 


Problems: 

1. How many heads of flowers? 

2. How many flowers in each head? In all heads? 

3. How much area covered by the plant? 

4. How much ground is it possible for this one plant to cover an¬ 
other year, if all the seeds grow to plants the size of the parent ? 

5. How much water does a sunflower take from the ground and 
pass into the air? (Reference.) 

6. Why should farmers be particular in destroying young sunflower 
plants in their fields? 

Readings: 

Atkinson—Botany for Schools, Page 103. 

Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Page 197. 

Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Page 50. 


THE AUTUMNAL COLORATION AND FALL OF LEAVES 

Introductory experiment: 

With 90% alcohol remove green coloring (chlorophyll) from a green 
leaf, pour this into two test tubes, place one in the light, the other 
in a dark box. With hot water remove red coloring (anthocyan) 
from a red foliage leaf or autumn colored woodbine and do as above. 
Examine leaf scars on stems. Cut longitudinal sections through the 
stem and base of leaf that is about ready to fall and noti the cut¬ 
ting off (abscission) layer. 

Problems and topics: 

% 

1. Effect of light on chlorophyll, on anthocyan. 

2. Why do leaves turn yellow? 

3. Account for brown leaves and white variegated leaves. 

4. Climatic conditions aiding in autumn coloration and fall of 
leaves. 

5. Preparations made by trees for shedding leaves. 

6. Why do evergreens retain their leaves? 

Readings: 

✓ ' 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Pages 66 and 68. 

Allen and Gilbert—Text Book of Botany, Pages 254-257. 




588 (11) 


BOTANY 


Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Pages 214-216. 

Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Chapter VI. 

IDENTIFYING THE COMMON TREES 

INTRODUCTORY 

Field Work: 

Study the trees of the school yard and the vicinity with respect to 
the following: 

1. Character of the bark. 

2. Method of branching. 

3. Kind of leaves. 

4. Bud characteristics. 

5. Type of fruit. 

i 

Project: 

Make a simple tree key that might be used to identify the trees 
studied, basing the key on the leaf characters principally. 

Problems and topics: 

1. What makes a good shade tree? 

2. Which ones of those studied do you consider the best trees ? 

3. What injuries do trees suffer? 

4. How should a tree be transplanted? 

Readings: 

Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Pages 298-300. 

Levison—Trees. 

LEAVES AND THEIR WORK 

INTRODUCTORY WORK 

1. Parts of a leaf in general. 

2. Microscopic study of internal structure. 

3. Parts of a typical cell. 

Modified leaves. 


4. 


BOTANY 


(12) 589 


FOOD MANUFACTURE 

Laboratory 'Work: (Answer following questions by means of experiments) 

1. Is chlorophyll necessary for starch manufacturing? 

2. Is light necessary for starch manufacturing? 

3. Does the manufactured starch remain in the leaves? 

4. What is the waste product? 

* 

Problems and topics: 

1. What are the working parts of the leaf? 

2. Materials used in starch manufacture (photosynthesis), energy 
supply, chemical changes produced in the cells, and conditions 
necessary for the process. 

3. Amounts of starch made and economic importance. 

4. Relation of carbohydrates to the production of fats and proteins. 

5. Plants rich in starch production. 

6. How do the white parts of a variegated leaf get food? 

7. Value of photosynthesis due to its influence on the atmosphere? 

8. Which would be richer in nourishment, hay cut in the evening 
or in the morning? Why? 

9. Why do parasitic plants generally have no leaves or very small 
scale-like ones ? 

THE BREATHING PROCESS (RESPIRATION) 

Laboratory work: 

Put some leaves and flowers in a jar. Place a vial containing lime 
water among them. Note the results. 

Problems and topics: 

1. What does the respiration process furnish the plant? 

2. Compare photosynthesis and respiration. 

3. Why should flowers be removed from the sleeping room at night? 

4. How does the rate of respiration in other parts of the plant 
compare with that of leaves? 

5. Why are fruit cars and ships transporting plants and fruits well 
ventilated ? 


590 (13) 


BOTANY 


ASSIMILATION, DIGESTION, AND GROWTH 
Problems and topics: 

1. Compare assimilation with respiration in their metabolic pro¬ 
cesses. 

2. How is digestion accomplished? 

3. Where do leaves grow? 

HOW PLANTS GIVE OFF WATER 

Laboratory work: (Answer questions by experiments) 

1. Does water evaporate from the shoots? 

2. How much water may evaporate from a plant ? Graph hourly 
loss and temperature changes. 

3. What hinders the rapid evaporation and complete drying out 
of a leaf? 

4. Does transpiration take place equally from both surfaces ? 

Problems and topics: 

1. How do plants that are wilted after a hot summer day recover 
their firmness during the night, even though there is no rain? 

2. Dangers from too rapid evaporation. 

3. Rolling of corn leaves. 

4. Ways of protection against transpiration. 

5. Effect of transportation on leaf structure. 

6. Classification of plants according to their water relations. 

MOVEMENTS OF LEAVES AND THEIR LIGHT RELATION 

Laboratory work: (Answer questions by experiments) 

1. Do leaves grow toward the light? 

2. How is the blade moved into its position with reference to the 
light? 

3. Influence of light on leaf structure. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Arrangement of leaves with reference to light. 

2. Structure of aerial, floating, and submerged leaves due to light. 

3. Sleep of leaves. 


BOTANY 


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4. Sensitive leaves. 

5. Why do house plants flourish best at south windows in winter? 

6. Why do “gardeners” bank celery? 

7. Why are buds that sprout on potatoes in the cellar white? 

Readings: 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Pages 13-19; 55-71; 479-487. 
Allen and Gilbert—Text Book of Botany, Chapter XVI. 

Atkinson—Botany for Schools, Chapters X-XIII. 

Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Pages 175-177, Chapter XI. 
Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Chapters IV, V, VII, and VIII. 
Andrews—Practical Course in Botany, Chapter VI. 

STEMS AND THEIR FUNCTION 

INTRODUCTORY 

Problems and topics: 

1. General characters of stems. 

2. Kinds of stems with reference to length of life. 

3. Types of modified stems. 

4. Herbs, shrubs, and trees. 

GROWTH OF STEMS 

Laboratory work: 

By experiment show the effect of light and gravity on growth of 
stems. 

Where do stems grow in length? 

Problems and topics: 

1. Does the absence of light affect the growth of a stem? 

* 

2. If stems respond to the influence of gravity, how can the lateral 
branches of trees be accounted for? 

3. Danger of excessive growth in length? 

4. How do you account for the difference in the shape of a tree 
growing in the forest and the same kind growing in the open? 

5. Definite and indefinite growth. 

6. Why do stems of grains straighten themselves after being pros¬ 
trated by wind? 




592 (15) 


BOTANY 


BRANCHING HABITS 

Problems and topics: 

1. Origin of branches. 

2. Knots in wood. 

3. Fruit spurs. 

VALUE OF STEMS 

Laboratory work: 

J.. Demonstrate the stem as a highway for passage of wakr 
through the plant. 

2. Value of stem in displaying leaves. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Green stems and photosynthesis. 

2. Propagation by stems. 

3. Kinds of food stored. 

4. Commercial value. 

GRAFTING AND BUDDING 

Laboratory work: 

1. Make grafts to illustrate principles. 

2. Field work in grafting. (In season) 

Problems and topics: 

1. Different methods. 

2. Value of grafting. 

3. Special precautions. 

BUDS 

Laboratory work: 

1. Watch the opening of buds. 

2. Contents of buds. 

« 

Problems and topics: 

1. Kinds of buds. 

2. Buds in winter. 

3. Form of a tree dependent on buds. 


BOTANY 


(16) 593 


STRUCTURE OF A MONOCOT STEM 
Laboratory work: 

1. Study the cross section of cornstalk under a compound micro¬ 
scope. (Sketch position of bundles.) 

2. Study in detail a fibrovascular bundle. 

3. Attachment of leaves at the nodes. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Parts of a fibrovascular bundle. 

2. Mechanical advantage in their arrangement. 

3. Strengthening fibers. 

4. Relation of the fibrovascular bundles to the leaves at the nodes. 

5. Why is the timber from monocot stems not used much in build¬ 
ing? 

6. Other types of monocot stems. 

7. Value of these stems commercially. 

STRUCTURE OF A DICOT STEM WITH SEPARATE BUNDLES 
Laboratory work: 

1. Study the cross section of a foliage plant (Coleus) or sunflower. 
Sketch position of bundles. 

2. Note other strengthening fibers. Sketch. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Function of the xylem and phloem regions, and the cambium ring. 

2. Mechanical advantage of the arrangement. * 

STRUCTURE OF A WOODY STEM 
Laboratory work: 

1. Note rings and radiating lines of a cut stem. 

2. Note the thickness of the bark as compared with the wood. 

3. Cut longitudinal and tangential pieces. Examine the markings. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Account for the annual thickening of woody stems. 

2. Production of cork and its value to the stem. 

3. What trees produce cork for commercial use? 

4. Heart wood and sap wood. 


594 (17) 


BOTANY 


5. Lenticels and their function. 

6. “Qarter-sawed” and “plain-sawed” boards. 

7. What woods are used for cabinet work? Why? 

8. Why can the bark be slipped off certain woody stems in spring, 
to make whistles, while in autumn or winter it cannot? 

9. Why does girdling a tree kill it? 

10. How are wounds on a tree healed over ? 

Readings: 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Chapters IV, V, and VI.. 
Allen and Gilbert—Text Book of Botany, Chapter XV. 

Atkinson—Botany for Schools, Chapters VII, VIII, and IX. 

Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Chapter XII. 

Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Chapters IX, X, and XI. 

Andrews—Practical Course, Chapter IV. 

FORESTRY AND FOREST MANAGEMENT 

INTRODUCTORY 

Laboratory work: 

1. Study the forest areas of a forestry map of North America. 
Reproduce these areas with colored crayons on an outline map. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Meaning of forestry. 

2. History of,forest regions of the United States and Canada.. 

COMPOSITION OF THE FOREST 
Problems and topics: 

1. Pure and mixed forests. 

2. Tolerant and intolerant trees. 

PROBLEMS OF FORESTRY 

Problems and topics: 

1. Propagation of forest trees and selection of trees.. 

2. Planting the trees, pruning trees, felling trees. 

3. Protecting trees from disease, decay, and fire. 


BOTANY 


(18) 595 


NEED OF GOVERNMENT CONTROL 
Problems and topics: 

1. Compare present supply with early timber supply. 

2. Wasteful methods of felling. 

3. Floods due to disappearance of the forests. 

4. Rules for forest management. 

OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

Problems and topics: 

1. Extent of national forests. 

2. Growth of the areas. 

VALUE OF FORESTS 

Problems and topics: 

1. Various uses of lumber. 

« 

2. Wood distillation and other wood products. 

3. Influence on climate and water supply. 

4. Forest growth and erosion. 

FORESTRY APPLIED TO OUR TREES 
Problems and topics: 

1. Selection of good street trees. 

2. Planting and care of street trees. 

3. Injuries to city trees. 

Readings: 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Chapter XXII. 

Allen and Gilbert—Text Book of Botany, Chapter XXII. 
Atkinson—Botany for Schools, Pages 470-476. 

Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Chapter XII, Part II. 
Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Pages 298-300. 

Andrews—Practical Course in Botany, Pages 124-127. 

Levison—Trees, entire book. 



596 (19) 


BOTANY 


ROOTS AND THEIR FUNCTION 

INTRODUCTORY 

Problems and topics: 

1. Origin of roots. 

2. Types of roots. 

3. Special forms. 

4. Extent of root systems. 

GROWTH OF ROOTS AND INFLUENCING FACTORS 
Laboratory work: 

1. By experiment find the growing and elongation zone of a root.. 

2. By experiment show the effect of light, water, and gravity on the- 
direction of growth. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Special advantage in the location of the growing zone. 

2. Force exerted by roots in their growth. 

• 3. Origin and growth of the lateral branches. 

4. Why can the cypress tree grow in swamps? 

ROOTS AND THE SOIL 

* 

Laboratory work: 

1. By experiment show that roots excrete an acid. 

2. Examine root systems in dry, medium, and wet soils (field study). 

Priblems and topics: 

1. Effect of roots in soil formation. 

2. Materials taken from the soil through the roots. 

3. Addition of fertilizers to the soil. 

4. Need of crop rotation. Crops to rotate. 

5. Partnership of roots and bacteria. 

6. Alfalfa and its relation to nitrogen in the soil. 

7. Movement of water in the soil. 

8. Kinds of soil and effect on root systems. 


BOTANY 


(20) 597 


ABSORPTION OF WATER 

Laboratory work: 

1. Study root hairs under the microscope. 

2. Experiment of osmosis and its relation to the work of the root 
hair. 

3. Experiment of exosmosis in its relation to the effect of saline 
soils. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Turgor in the cell. 

2. Root pressure and the ascent of sap. 

3. Advantages in a wide spreading root system. 

4. Temperature in relation to absorption. 

5. Do all roots take up the same quantities of water and soil 
nutrients ? 

6. Why cannot all plants live on saline soils? 

7. What are physiologically dry soils? 

VALUE OF ROOTS 

Problems and topics: 

* # 

1. Food storage. 

2. Propagation. 

3. Anchorage. 

4. Commercial uses. 

STRUCTURE OF ROOTS 

Laboratory work: 

1. Examine the internal structure of a root. Sketch. 

2. With the microscope study the root tip and root cap. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Arrangement of tissues and mechanical advantage. 

2. Value of the root cap. 

3. Development of the root hair. 


598 (21) 


BOTANY 


Readings: 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Chapter III, Pages 497-499. 
Allen and Gilbert—Text Book of Botany, Chapter XIV. 

Atkinson—Botany for Schools, Chapters V, VI, and XV. 

Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Chapters XIII, II and III 
in Part II. 

Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Chapter XIV. 

Andrews—Practical Course in Botany, Chapter III. 

SEEDS 

STUDY OF THE PARTS OF A SEED 
Laboratory work: 

1. Dissect and study parts of a bean seed. Sketch. 

2. Dissect and study parts of a kernel of com. Sketch. 

3. Examine castor bean (Ricinus) and compare with first study. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Classification of seeds according to number of cotyledona. 

2. Value of the seed coat. 

GERMINATION OF THE SEED 
Laboratory: (Work out the following experiments) 

1. Water required and amount taken up in germination. 

2. Force exerted in germination. 

3. Temperature in relation to germination. 

4. Light in relation to germination. 

5. Is air necessary for germination? 

6. Effect of germination on the surrounding air. 

Problems and topics: 

* 

1. Why will seeds, as a general thing, germinate more readily after 
being soaked? 

2. Does the spongy covering of black walnuts influence their water 
supply? 

Why must stored seeds be kept dry? 


3 . 


BOTANY 


(22) 599 


GROWTH OF THE SEEDLING 

Laboratory work: 

1. Watch the growth of the young seedlings of the various seeds 
studied as they break through the seed coat. 

2. Note the difference in the way they come through the ground. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Why does the root come out first and become established in the 
soil? 

2. How do you account for the way the bean comes through the 
ground ? 

3. How does a pea differ from a bean in coming through the 

ground ? 

PLANTING SEEDS 

Problems and topics: 

1. Depth to plant. 

2. Self planting seeds. 

3. Conditions of soil. 

FOODS STORED IN SEEDS 

Laboratory work: 

1. Chemical tests for starch, protein, oil, and grape sugar. 

2. Relation between the amount of 'food stored and the rate of 
germination. 

3. Value of the cotyledons. 

Problems and topics: 

1. From what part of the castor bean do we get oil? From what 
part of the peanut? 

2. Name other seeds rich in oil? 

3. What gives its value as food to Indian corn? to oats? to 
wheat ? to rice ? 

4. What is gluten? Name some grains rich in gluten. 

5. Mention some seeds from which medicines are procured. 

6. What grain feeds more human beings than does any other? 


600 


( 23 ) 


BOTANY 


7. Which of our three chief food grains is a waterplant? Which 
grows farthest south? Which grows farthest north? Which 
one is of American origin? 

8. If you wished to produce a variety of corn rich in oil, you would 
select seed for planting with what part well developed ? 

DIGESTION OF FOODS 

Laboratory work: 

1. Examine starch grains from the indosperm of a kernel of corn 
and compare with them starch grains from a sprouting kernel 
of corn. 

2. Compare some starch grains that have been in a diastase solu¬ 
tion for a few hours. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Enzymes and food digestion. 

2. Compare solubility of starch and sugar? 

3. In what form is starch when it is being carried through the 
plant ? 

4. Compare plant and animal tissues in their requirements of 
digested food. 

» 

SEED TESTING AND SELECTION 

Problems and topics: 

1. Value of testing. 

2. Does it make any difference in the health and vigor of a plant 
whether it is grown from a large and well-developed seed or 
from a weak and poorly developed one? 

3. Would a farmer be wise who should market all his best grain 
and keep only the inferior for seed? 

Readings: 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Chapter IX. 

Allen and Gilbert—Text Book of Botany, Pages 149-152; 162-165; 
1, 2, 3. 

Atkinson—Botany for Schools, Chapters II and III. 

Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Chapters X, IV, VII in 

Part II. 


BOTANY 


(24) 

Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Chapter VII. 

Andrews—Practical Course in Botany, Chapters I and II. 

THE LOWER PLANT FORMS (ALGAE) 

INTRODUCTORY 

1. Algae, the primitive plants. 

2. Abundance of representatives. 

3. Variety of forms, colors, and sizes. 

4. Cause of the color of “red snow” and the Red Sea. 

5. Extent of their habitat. 

\ 

6. Plankton. 

7. Algae and water supply. 

A ONE-CELLED PLANT 

% 

Laboratory work: 

1. Collect Pleurococcus from the north side of trees. Note con¬ 
ditions of its habitat. 

2. Study the plants with a compound microscope. Sketch. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Parts of the vegetative cell. 

2. How would this plant secure the essential materials for its nu¬ 
trition ? 

3. Is the plant independent, or is it saprophytic on the bark? 

4. Method of reproduction. 

A FILAMENTOUS PLANT 

Laboratory work: 

1. Collect pond scum from watering troughs or standing water 
and examine it for the filamentous strands of Spirogyra. 

2. Draw one or two cells in detail. 

3. Examine some conjugating material. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Parts of the vegetable cell. 

2. Activities of the green cells. 



601 




602 


(25) 


BOTANY 


3. How do you account for the frothy appearance of pond scum 
in summer? 

4. How do the filaments increase in length? 

5. Method of reproduction. 

6. Why is the pond scum often filled with snails and other small 
water animals? 

MARINE ALGAE 

Problems and topics: 

1. Brown and red algae, the seaweeds. 

2. Size of plants. 

3. Commercial value. 

Readings: 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Chapters XII and XIII. 
Allen and Gilbert—Text Book of Botany, Chapter V. 

Atkinson—Botany for Schools, Chapters XXV and XXVI. 

Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Chapter I. 

Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Chapter XVIII. 

Andrews—Practical Course in Botany, Chapter X, Part I. 

THE LOWER PLANT FORMS (FUNGI) 

INTRODUCTORY 

1. Characteristics of the organisms. 

2. Dependency—^parasitic and saprophytic. 

3. Economic importance. 

BACTERIA 

Laboratory work: 

1. Study a drop of hay infusion for bacteria. 

2. Test air, water, and dust for bacteria with potato medium. 

Problems and topics: 


1. Principal forms and sizes of bacteria. 

2. Reproduction rapidity. 


BOTANY 


(26) 603 


3. Diseases caused by bacteria. 

4. Relation to agriculture and industry. 

5. Ways of distribution, or spread of bacteria. 

6. Work of Louis Pasteur. 

7. Public duty in preservation of health. 

MOLDS 

Laboratory work: 

1. Study conditions favorable for producing bread mold. 

2. Examine plant structures under the microscope. Sketch. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Type of fungus plant. 

2. Effect of molds upon the substratum. 

3. What conditions favor the molding of bread, fruit, and jelly? 

4. Where does the mold come from? 

5. Reproduction of mold. 

YEAST AND FERMENTATION 

Laboratory work: 

1. Make a yeast culture and study under the microscope the cells 
and their reproduction. 

2. By an experiment determine the conditions favoring fermentation 
and the resulting products. 

Problems and topics: 

1. The fermentation process and enzyme activity. 

2. Kinds of yeasts. 

3. What causes bread to be “heavy” ? 

4. What is the effect on canned fruits and vegetables if yeast cells 
get into them ? 

SMUTS AND RUSTS 

Laboratory work: 

1. Examine some corn smut. 

2. Study the life history of wheat rust. Sketch the different stages 
of the cycle. 


604 ( 27 ) 


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Problems and topics: 

1. Function of each stage in the rust cycle. 

2. Eradication of the barberry. 

3. What work has been done in Nebraska ? 

4. Damage done by the black stem rust. 

5. What are some of the difficulties in decreasing the rust? 

6. Denmark and rust control. 

7. Apple rust and the cedar apple. 

MUSHROOMS 

Laboratory work: 

1. Collect mushrooms (toadstools) and examine the fruiting part. 
In the substratum note the spawn and various stages of develop¬ 
ing mushrooms. 

Problems and topics: 

1. How do mushrooms spread ? 

2. Are they parasitic or saprophytic in their habits ? 

3. Do you find these fungi most abundant on young and healthy 
trees, or on old, decrepit ones? Account for the difference. 

4. Is it wise to leave old, unhealthy trees and decaying trunks in 
a timber lot? 

5. Why is it dangerous to collect mushrooms ? 

6. Puffballs. 

7. Bracket fungi. 

8. Other related forms. 

LICHENS 

Laboratory work: 

1. Collect some lichens from the bark of trees and examine the plant 
structure. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Relationship of algae and fungi in a lichen. 

2. Have lichens any economic value ? 


BOTANY 


(28) 605 


3. Lichens as soil formers and forerunners of other plant life. 

4. Do you find lichens growing on healthy young trees, or on older 
ones showing signs of decay? 

Readings: 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Chapters XI, XIV, and XV. 

Allen and Gilbert—Text Book of Botany, Chapters II, IV, VI, VII, 
and VIII. 

Atkinson—Botany for Schools, Chapters XXVII-XXXI. 

Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Chapter IV. 

Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Chapter XIX. 

Andrews—Practical Course in Botany, Chapter IX, Parts III and IV. 
Bulletin No. 796. The Black Stem Rust and the Barberry. 

LIVERWORTS AND MOSSES 
INTRODUCTORY 
Laboratory work: (Optional) 

1. Make a field study of liverworts and mosses, if possible. Note 
conditions favorable to them. Examine underground parts as 
well as above-ground parts. 

2. Study the thallus of each and development of spore bearing parts. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Structures of the vegetative plant. 

2. The first land plants. Responses to aerial environment. 

3. Conditions most favorable to their growth. 

4. Life history of the moss. 

Readings: 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Chapter XVI. 

Allen and Gilbert—Text Book of Botany, Chapter IX. 

Atkinson—Botany for Schools, Chapters XXXII and XXXIII. 

Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Chapter V. 

Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Chapter XX. 

Andrews—Practical Course in Botany, Chapter X, Parts V, VI, and 

VII. 


606 (29) 


BOTANY 


THE PINE 

INTRODUCTORY 

Laboratory work: 

1. In the field, study the characteristics of pine trees. 

2. Collect staminate and carpellate cones. 

3. Note the development of the carpellate cones. 

Problems and topics: 

1. Describe the pollen of the pine and the process of pollination. 

2. Does the seed of the pine appear to be equivalent to the seeds 
of flowering plants on such points as means of dispersal, protec¬ 
tive covering, food supply, and condition of the embryo? 


Readings: 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Chapter XVIII. 
Allen and Gilbert—Text Book of Botany, Chapter XI. 
Atkinson—Botany for Schools, Chapter XXXVI. 

Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Chapter VII. 
Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Chapter XXII. 


THE FIRST VASCULAR PLANT 


INTRODUCTORY 


Laboratory: 

1. Where possible study the fern in its natural habitat. Note con¬ 
ditions favorable for its growth. 

2. Examine the plant for roots and stems. 

3. Study the frond as it grows and its arrangement for spore for¬ 
mation. 

4. Find the flat plant, the prothallium. Examine it for antheridia 
and archegonia. 


Problems and topics: 

1. Characteristics of a true fern. 

2. Alternation of generations. 

3. Type of vascular system. 

4. Of what value or advantage is it to the fern to have the stem 
underground ? 

5. Why is the gametophyte generation so seldom seen? 


BOTANY 


(30) 607 


Readings: 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Chapter XVII. 
Allen and Gilbert—Text Book of Botany, Chapter X. 
Atkinson—Botany for Schools, Chapter XXXIV. 

Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Chapter VI. 
Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Chapter XXI. 


ECOLOGICAL GROUPING (OPTIONAL) 

INTRODUCTORY 


Field Study: 


1. Examine the vegetation of any accessible lake, pond, marsh, or 
river, of ordinary woods, thickets, and grass lands, and of the 
driest areas in the region, such as sand hills, barren knolls, or 
banks, ledges, or outlying masses of rock. Select some of the 
typical inhabitants of each region and make a list of: 

(1) Hydrophytes (a) living only in water, (b) Living either in 
water or in very wet soil. 

(2) Mesophytes. 


(3) Xerophytes. 


Problems and topics: 

1. How are the plants in each habitat modified by their environ¬ 
ment? 

2. Account for the deferences in root systems. 

3. Do the leaves show marked differences in each habitat? 

4. Is your climate moist or dry? Warm or cold? 

5. Can you trace any connection between these factors and the 
prevailing types of vegetation? 

6. Name some of the native plants characteristic of different parts 
of Nebraska. 

7. Does the native wild growth of a region furnish any indication 
of the kind of crops which could be successfully grown there? 

Readings: 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Chapter XXVI. 

Atkinson—Botany for Schools, Chapters XXXIX and XLI. 

Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Chapter XIV. 

Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Chapters XII and XIII. 

Andrews—Practical Course in Botany, Chapter IX. 


608 (31) 


BOTANY 


IDENTIFYING SPRING FLOWERS 

INTRODUCTORY 

Laboratory work: 

1. Study collected wild flowers and fruit blossoms. 

2. Use a floral manual and trace down to species. 

Problems and topics: 

1. How many different families are represented in your collection? 

2. Do the representatives of each family have marked characters 
to show their relation? 

Herbarium: 

(The herbarium of thirty or fifty specimens made by each member 
of the class is not recommended, but an herbarium made by the 
entire class, with each specimen properly identified and left for the 
school to be added to with new specimens each year is recommended^ 
Too much time is often wasted and too many errors left uncorrected 
when each student makes an herbarium.) 

Readings: 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Chapter XX. 

Allen and Gilbert—Text Book of Botany, Chapter XIX. 

Transeau—Science of Plant Life, Chapter XXIII. 

Manuals: 

Petersen—Flora of Nebraska. 

Britton—Flora of Northern States and Canada. 

Gray—Manual of Botany of the Northern United States. 

REFERENCE LIST 

Suggested Texts 

Coulter—Elementary Studies in Botany, Appleton. 

Atkinson—Botany for Schools, Henry Holt & Co. 

Transeau—Science of Plant Life, World Book Co. 

Allen and Gilbert—Text Book for Botany, D. C. Heath & Co. 

Bergen and Caldwell—Practical Botany, Ginn & Co. 

Andrews—Practical Course in Botany, A. B. C. 

Additional Reference Books 
Densmore—General Botany, Ginn & Co. 

Coulter, Barnes and Cowles—A Textbook of Botany, A. B. C. 
Clements—Plant Physiology & Ecology, Henry Holt & Co. 

Atkinson—Mushrooms, Henry Holt & Co. 



BOTANY 


(32) 609 


Duggar—Fungous Diseases of Plants, Ginn & Co. 

Conn—Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds in the Home (Rev. Ed.), Ginn & 

Co. 

Leavitt—Outlines of Botany, A. B. C. 

Sargent—Manual of Trees of North America, Houghton Mifflin & 

Co. 

Suggested Laboratory Manuals 

Eikenberry—Problems in Botany, Ginn & Co. 

Frye and Rigg—Laboratory Exercises in Elementary Botany, Ginn 

& Co. 

Andrews—Practical Course in Botany (Exercises in the text), A.B.C. 

Laboratory Materials 

The following microscopic materials recommended by this Depart¬ 
ment for use in courses in Botany and Agriculture in Nebraska high 
schools were suggested by Dr. J. E. Weaver, Professor of Botany in the 
University of Nebraska. The same materials are being used for a part 
of the course in “Methods in Botany for Teachers” at the University. 

1. Cross section typical dicotyledonous root. 

2. Longi-section corn root, showing root-cap and regions of growth. 

3. Longi-section root showing mitosis. 

4. Cross section typical dicotyledonous leaf. 

5. Cross section typical monocotyledonous leaf. 

6. Cross section typical dicotyledonous stem. 

7. Cross section typical monocotyledonous stem. 

8. Cross sections stamens—young. 

9. Cross sections stamens—mature. 

10. Longi-section buttercup flower. 

11. Cross section of woody dicotyledonous stem showing annual rings. 

12. Cluster cups on Barberry and Gooseberry. 

13. Black and red rust spore stage on wheat leaf. 

14. Cross section wheat kernel showing stored food. 

Bulletins 

Procure lists of publications from the United States Department of 
Agriculture. Important papers appear frequently, which may be ob¬ 
tained free or at small cost. 

Bulletins from the College of Agriculture, University of Nebraska, 
Lincoln, may be obtained by having your department placed on its mail¬ 
ing list. Through the Botany Department valuable articles on wheat 
rust and the survey of the state may be obtained. 





PHYSIOLOGY 

AND 

HYGIENE 

F. M. GREGG 

Nebraska Wesleyan University 


Physiology and Hygiene 

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

“Public health is the most fundamental and basic element of social, 
economic, and national efficiency. Wealth is but a symptom and func¬ 
tion of health. Yet with our innate inclination to consider symptoms 
rather than to grapple with fundamental causes, we have, in our sys¬ 
tems of social philosophy, either entirely left out the element of public 
health or given to it but passing attention. We have developed an im¬ 
mense science of economics and a philosophy of wealth, but have left 
the science of public health in a very fragmentary and incomplete state. 
With the recently awakened active interest in the promotion of public 
health the need of scientifically established principles is becoming very 
acute, but with reference to understanding public-health needs we are 
in a state of almost complete chaos. 

The death losses to our country are enormous and largely prevent¬ 
able. The judgment of the best experts versed in mortality statistics 
and in the results of various forms of hygienic improvement here and 
abroad agrees pretty well with Professor Fisher’s estimates of prevent- 
ability given in his book on ‘National Vitality’. His estimate, arrived 
at with the assistance of thirty experts in health matters, is that in 
general about 42 per cent of the deaths of persons in the United States 
could be reasonably prevented or postponed, ‘if knowledge now existing 
among well-informed men in the medical profession were actually ap¬ 
plied in a reasonable way and to a reasonable extent’. An examination 
of his tables showing his estimates of preventability for deaths, from 
the manifold causes, will convince most intelligent persons that they are 
fairly conservative and that they are based on present data, counting 
not at all on the assured advance in preventive medicine. 

Some of the leading facts relating to this great problem are as fol¬ 
lows: 

1. One-fifth of all the children born each year in this country die 
before they are a year old, approximately a half-million. Where there 
are fairly efficient and developed health agencies, such as boards of 
health, carefully conducted infant-mortality campaigns in this country 
have cut this death-rate to about one-tenth of these proportions. 

2. Half of the persons born in our country die before they are 
twenty-three years of age, and about half of these before the age of 
five. 

3. The average age of persons dying is gradually rising, but is 
still below the age of forty—near thirty-eight. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


(6) 613 


4. Approximately 1,600,000 of our population die each year—about 
670,000 (42 per cent) of reasonably preventable diseases. The econ¬ 
omic losses due to these deaths are at least a billion dollars. These 
losses come in the form of public and private care of the sick and dead 
and in lost wages, but principally in the form of cut-off potential earn¬ 
ings. The value of a life at various ages can, in general, be somewhat 
easily computed, and the average value for all ages used by economists 
is $1,700. 

In a recent volume Price Collier has asserted that ‘the earth will 
be as cold as the moon before all men realize that the only real wealth 
is health’; and certainly the experiences of the past seem to warrant 
his conclusion. Health is and will always remain a fundamental value 
of life, practically inseparable from life itself. Yet on every side, the 
world over, we are confronted by the fact that health, including normal 
physical development, longevity, and splendid bodily resistance, is being 
only very inadequately achieved by millions of people. When a third 
of all the children born with such cost into a civilized community like 
America die before the age of five, and half are dead before the age 
of twenty-three, when the average term of life is but thirty-eight years 
instead of fifty or sixty, and when illness, deformities, and multifarious 
physical defects are afflicting the race with an immense and overburden¬ 
ing cost, it would seem that every agency which the state has at its 
disposal would be vigorously engaged in preventing and eliminating 
from the world, or lessening to a fraction of their present destructive¬ 
ness, these enemies of health and vitality.”* 

“But statements of economic loss do not fully represent the import¬ 
ance of health conservation. Waste of life or health involves grief and 
moral suffering which cannot be measured in gold.”f 

This course of study aims to awaken a “health consciousness” in 
the student and to lead him to appreciate the value of health habits and 
their significance for the advancement of human welfare. 

The Department hereby expresses its indebtedness to Prof. F. M. 
Gregg, Nebraska Wesleyan Univresity, University Place, Nebraska, for 
the course and for permission to use copyright material. 

The state examination questions in physiology will be based on this 
course of study. 


*Rapeer—Educational Hygiene, Scribner’s. 

fTeriman—Hygiene of the School Child, Houghton Mifflin. 


A. L. B. 




614 (7) 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


OUTLINE OF COURSES 

General Aims of the Course 

1. To so impress the fundamental principles of hygiene and sanita¬ 
tion as to lead to their being “stamped into” the life habits of the pupils 
taking the course. 

2. To provide opportunity for Nebraska high school pupils to be¬ 
come definitely acquainted with certain anatomical and physiological 
facts as a basis of important principles of hygiene and sanitation. 

3. To develop some skill in the manipulation of laboratory ma¬ 
terials, to secure the pupil’s confidence in his ability to follow success¬ 
fully a set of laboratory directions, and to illustrate the nature-study 
method of presenting the important subject of hygiene in elementary 
grades. 

4. To provide normal training students with a body of knowledge a 
part of which is to be transmitted later to boys and girls in elementary 
grades and the remainder of which is to prevent, as far as possible, the 
transmission of “information that is not so”. 

5. To lead to direct acquaintance with helpful sources of information 
in the field of physiology, hygiene, and sanitation, and to develop a per¬ 
manent interest in current publications on health topics. 

Important Suggestions to Teachers 

1. It is believed that the chief difficulty in understanding the sub¬ 
ject of physiology and hygiene in the past has been the lack of sense- 
acquaintance with the unusual elements of the subject, and hence the 
lack of the necessary imagery with which to translate the thot em¬ 
bodied in the printed page of the text-book. Accordingly, the laboratory 
projects and problems provided in the course are presented as the most 
vital part, not only for the pupils taking the course, but for the influence 
it should have on normal training students’ later work as teachers of 
hygiene. THIS LABORATORY WORK IS DISTINCTLY FOR THE 
PURPOSE OF PROVIDING SENSE-EXPERIENCE AND SHOULD IN 
EVERY INSTANCE PRECEDE THE STUDY OF THE CORRESPOND¬ 
ING MATTER IN THE TEXT-BOOKS. 

2. Inasmuch as good health lies back of the economic, psychic, 
social, moral, and religious welfare of any people, the normal training 
pupils who go out to become the community educational leaders, need to 
be especially well grounded in the principles of health control. It is 
therefore recommended that for the average pupil two forty-minute peri¬ 
ods of preparation and one of recitation be assigned for each of the five 
days of work in the subject per week. The double period of preparation 
may be spent either on book study or in the laboratory. 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


(8) 615 


3. A glance thru the course will show that it is made up of eighteen 
weekly units, each unit (except two) consisting of one double period of 
laboratory work introductory to the topic for the week, followed by four 
days to be devoted to such related problems as the teacher may evolve 
and to text-book work. The ideal arrangement would then be to start the 
week’s series on any one convenient but regular day with a double period 
of laboratory work, say in the afternoon, the result of this work being 
summarized at the next succeeding forenoon recitation hour, at which 
time also there can be such forecasting of the work for the week as the 
teacher may see fit to give. The remaining four days of the week would 
in general be given over to text-book study and recitation. It has been 
found that if the laboratory work comes on Friday afternoon, then the 
Monday morning class hour does not suffer neglect from the usual week¬ 
end congestion of claims on the pupils’ time, for the work for Monday has 
already been done in the laboratory. 

4. In case it is found impracticable to give the laboratory work two 
periods separate from the regular class recitation hour, a compromise can 
be made by using the recitation hour, say on Friday, and the period either 
immediately preceding or following it, for the laboratory work. This 
would necessitate that the assignment made at the recitation hour on 
Thursday could not be recited upon until Monday and would require also 
that a more intensive summarization of the work be indulged in on the 
remaining recitation days. 

5. There is a third possibility for those schools that employ the 
double period of supervised study and recitation. Here the laboratory 
work would be done either in a full eighty-minute period, or better still, 
could be divided and alternated with text-book work. Taking judicious 
advantage of the elasticity of the time, distribution within the eighty- 
minute period, an adjustment of the work in logical sequence can easily 
be effected. However, if the full time required for the mastery of the 
course is given to it, the average student will have to put a full period of 
unsupervised study on each day’s work. 

6. If Gregg’s Laboratory Direction Sheets are used only one or two 
copies of each of the other laboratory manuals will be needed for refer¬ 
ence. If not, each two students in the course will need a copy of Hart¬ 
man’s Laboratory Manual of Human Physiology. Only one or two copies 
for the whole class will be needed of the other laboratory manuals, 
namely, Hunter’s A Civic Biology and Gregg’s Hygiene by Experiment 
and Gregg’s Laboratory Direction Sheets. Of the other three books 
named for study as text-books, namely, Walters’ Physiology and Hygiene, 
Williams’ Healthful Living, and Hough and Sedgwick’s Human Mechan¬ 
ism, only a book of one kind for each pupil will be necessary. It is bet¬ 
ter to provide one-third of the pupils with one kind of text, another 


616 (») 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


third with another text and the remainder of the class with a still different 
text. In this way a socialized recitation can well be conducted. The 
single book system is discouraged as inadequate. 

7. It cannot be too strongly urged that great emphasis should be 
laid on the ACTUAL PRACTICE AMONG THE PUPILS OF EACH 
NEW PRINCIPLE OF HYGIENE that is considered. A practicable 
method for doing this is suggested in the supplementary matter following 
Chapter III in Walters’ Principles of Health Control, (Heath and Com¬ 
pany). To further emphasize this most important of the possible re¬ 
sults of this course, each pupil should summarize each week his viola¬ 
tions of the “decalog of good health” (found at the conclusion of this 
syllabus). The pupil should also be able to state which of the ten ad¬ 
monitions is illustrated by the lessons under discussion. 

8. It is pedagogically defensible and profitable to require the mem¬ 
bers of a class to reproduce from memory a summarization of each week’s 
work built up on the blackboard in the course of the week. Lay very 
heavy emphasis also on the mastery of the meaning of all words consti¬ 
tuting the vocabulary of the text-book in use. 

9. Under Related Problems and Text-Book Studies only very gen¬ 
eral topics are given. The stating of specific problems is left to the 
teacher. Many splendid questions and problems are to be found through¬ 
out Gregg’s Hygiene by Experiment, which will help the teacher in this 
very important feature of the work. 

10. At the time the pupils of the school are examined as required 
by Chapter 241, Session Laws of 1919, for the report to be made to the 
Bureau of Health, members of the physiology and hygiene class should 
watch a part of the examination and should be shown types of the com¬ 
mon physical defects among school children together with children nor¬ 
mal in this respect, as one of the bases for the application of the princi¬ 
ples of hygiene and sanitation. 

11. The student will of course be expected to make a note-book in 
connection with his work in the course, partly as a matter of making 
exact records of observations and conclusions, and partly as a means of 
preserving material for use in his later teaching experiences. The rec¬ 
ord of his laboratory work will be the standard record such as is re¬ 
quired by the manual in use. Not too much time should be spent on 
drawings, as this is sometimes more time-consuming than it is educa¬ 
tional. However, the requirements for neatness and content should be 
such that when the pupil is thru with the course he will value the note¬ 
book enough to wish to retain it. An abandoned note-book is a reflection 
on both the teacher and the pupil. 

12. The course in Physiology and Hygiene outlined here is one that 
has been carried thru completely in a good many of the schools of Ne- 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


(10) 617 


braska for a number of years. However, it is recognized that only an 
energetic, enterprising, resourceful, and conscientiously purposeful 
teacher will succeed in covering the ground. Much of the success of the 
work will depend on organizing the laboratory and class work so that 
everything is in readiness and moves with complete dispatch. Let the 
teacher not be afraid to exact work from the pupils, for no pupil ulti¬ 
mately respects a teacher who practices “soft pedagogy’'. 


618 (11) PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 

4 

OUTLINE OF THE COURSE 


CELLS AND TISSUES 

Problem: 

What part do the cells and tissues play in bodily well being ? 
Laboratory Projects: 

(This and each succeeding series of Laboratory Projects shall occupy 
at least one double period of laboratory work per week.) 

1. Let each pupil examine with a simple microscope or the low power 
of a compound microscope, a mounting on a glass slide of a drop of 
water from a horse trough, a wayside pond, or other sources where 
one-celled animals abound. Describe several forms. 


2. If an active amoeba can be discovered, let each pupil observe it under 
the high power of a microscope for two minutes and make a sketch 
of its appearance at the end of the period of observation. Reproduce 
the successive sketches. 

3. From an infusion of hay, prepared ten days in advance, take a drop 
of the whitish surface layer of water and place on a glass slide laid 
on a piece of black cloth or paper. The forms that can just be seen 
with unaided eye, moving about in broken lines, are paramecia. 
These should be studied both with the naked eye, and with simple 
and compound microscopes. 

4. Examine under both the low and the high power of a compound 

microscope a smear mounting of scrapings from the tongue. Note 

* 

the nucleus of each flat, irregular cell of the epithelial or protective 
tissue. 


5. Prepare or secure from a supply house an exceedingly thin mounting 
of cartilage from the surface of a bone joint. Examine the mount¬ 
ing under a low or a high power of a compound microscope. Note the 
cartilaginous cells scattered about in the uniform matrix of inter¬ 
cellular tissue. 


Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

(It is suggested that three days be devoted to the discussion of 
these topics.) 

1. Study the general subject of cells, as found in one or more of the 
text-books on physiology and hygiene. 

2. Similarly study the general subject of tissues. 

3. Take up the study of body organization in general and define anato¬ 
my, histology, physiology, hygiene, sanitation, pathology, biology. 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


(12) 619 


References—Laboratory: 

1. Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies of Cells and Tissues, I. 

2. Hartman: Laboratory Manual of Human Physiology, Section I. 

3. Hunter: A Civic Biology, Chapter XIII. 

4. Gregg: Hygiene by Experiment, Study XVI. 


References—Text: 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, Chapters I, II, and III. 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, Chapters I, II, III, and IV. 

3. Blount: Health, Chapter I. 


BLOOD AND LYMPH 


Problem: 

What are the functions of the circulating liquids in the body? 


Laboratory Projects: 

1. Make a fresh mounting of human blood on a glass slide and examine 
under the low and the high power of a compound microscope. Note 
the numerous, slightly yellowish-red corpuscles, and the liquid, or 
plasma, in which they float. Call attention to the fact that this plas¬ 
ma, which gets separated from the corpuscles by transuding from 
the blood capillaries out among the tissue cells, constitutes the lymph 
of the body, a fluid several times as great as the quantity of the 
blood. 

2. Examine in detail with the high power of the compound microscope 

a single red corpuscle and rouleaux of corpuscles. 

• ** 

3. Find in the microscopic field a good specimen of a white corpuscle, 
(kept at body temperature if possible) and observe its tendency to 
exhibit amoeboid movements. 

4. Let a blood mounting stand ten to twenty minutes till threads of 
fibrin form in the plasma. Examine the threads and note that the 
liquid that now remains is called blood serum, and that the threads 
are the basis of clotted blood. 

5. Develop a “water blister” by beating carpet, sawing wood, or crank¬ 
ing an auto. Puncture the blister and note the pure lymph that now 
comes out. Weep some “briny tears” for these are practically pure 
lymph. So also does perspiration somewhat resemble lymph in 
composition. 

Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

(It is suggested that four days be devoted to these and each suc¬ 
ceeding series of Related Problems and Text-Book Studies.) 


620 


(13) 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


1. The properties of blood. 

2. The functions of the parts of blood and the subject of coagulation. 

3. The parts of the lymphatic system. 

4. The sources and circulation of lymph and the functions and path¬ 
ology of the lymphatic system. 

References—Laboratory: 

*1. Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies of Blood and Circu¬ 
lation, II. 

2. Hartman: Laboratory Manual, First part of Section VI. 

3. Gregg: Hygiene by Experiment, Studies VIII and XXXVII. 

4. Hunter: A Civic Biology, First half of Chapter XXL 

References—Text: 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, Chapters IV and VI. 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, First half of Chapter XII and last half 
of Chapter XIII. 

3. Blount: Health, Chapter II, Section 4. 


Problem: 


BLOOD CIRCULATION 


What relation does the circulatory system bear to general health? 


Laboratory Projects: 

1. From a specimen of a hog’s or a sheep’s heart, or a model of the 
human heart, make a first hand study of the relation of the heart 
to the lungs; the pericardium; the veins and arteries connected 
with the heart. 

2. By suitable cutting of a specimen of a hog’s heart, study the inner 
chambers of the heart, noting the relative capacities and tissue struc¬ 
ture of the auricles and ventricles and the relative thicknesses of the 
walls of the ventricles. 

3. Observe the arrangement and workings of the auriculo-ventricular 
and the semi-lunar valves. Compare the structure of the bicuspid 
and the tricuspid valves. 

4. Compare the structure of the aorta and of a vena cava, that is, of 
an artery and a vein. 

5. Take the record of individual pulse-beats while sitting quietly, while 
standing and after running. Study also the heart-beat of someone 
by listening with ear pressed to the chest. 

6. Let selected students mount a live frog in a way to see the blood 
circulating in the web of the frog’s foot. Examine with low power; 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


(14) 621 


examine with high power, looking especially to see the small white 
corpuscles roll intermittently along the side of a capillary. 

1 . If possible, have a physician take the blood pressure of a pupil in 
the presence of the class. 

Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

1. The study of the heart and its disorders. 

2. The arteries, blood-pressure, and arterio-sclerosis. 

3. The veins, blood capillaries and lymphatics. 

4. The hygiene of the circulatory system, including common colds. 

References—Laboratory: 

1. Gregg—Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies II and III. 

2. Hartman—Laboratory Manual, Section VI. 

3. Hunter—A Civic Biology, Second half of Chapter XXL 

4. Gregg—Hygiene by Experiment, Studies XXXVIII and XXXIX. 

References—Text: 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, Chapter V. 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, Second half of Chapter XII and first 
half of Chapter XIII. 

3. Blount: Health, Chapter VII. 


Problem: 


RESPIRATION 


What is good air and how does the body get and use it? 


Laboratory Projects: 

1. Make a mirror examination of one’s own nasal passages and pharynx 
and a direct study of a specimen of a dog’s, hog’s or beef’s larynx. 

2. Examine a pair of unpunctured hog’s, dog’s, chicken’s or cat’s lungs 
freshly secured. Inflate the lungs by blowing into the trachea thru 
a glass tube. Dissect larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes and lungs and 
note structure. 

3. If possible get scrapings from the roof of frog’s mouth and examine 
a smear mounting under compound miscroscope, to see specimen of 
ciliated cells in action. 

4. By a suitable device secure the vital and tidal capacities of each 
pupil; secure chest expansion also. 

5. Make experimental studies of how air is gotten into and out of the 
lungs. 

6. Let the pupil make a few simple studies of air and its components. 


622 (15) 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


7. As a demonstration at the recitation hour following the laboratory- 
work, the teacher may well work some informational experiment 
with oxygen and carbon dioxide. 

Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

1. The study of the respiratory organs. 

2. The physiology and hygiene of the breathing process; dramatize re¬ 
suscitation from drowning or asphyxiating gases. 

3. The air and the chemistry of internal and external respiration. 

4. Review the work of the first four weeks and check up health habits. 

References—Laboratory: 

1. Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies IV. 

2. Hartman: Laboratory Manual, Section VII. 

3. Hunter: A Civic Biology, first half of Chapter XXII. 

4. Gregg: Hygiene by Experiment, Study XXXVI. 

References—Text: 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, Chapters VII, VIII, and the first 
half of Chapter XXL 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, Chapter XIV and a part of XVIII. 

3. Blount: Health, Chapter VIII. 


Problem: 


GERMS 


Why are germs of such great personal and public concern ? 


Laboratory Projects: 

1. Provide opportunity for observing thru an oil immersion lens mount¬ 
ings of the three forms of bacteria: bacilli, cocci, and spirilla. 

2. By the use of suitable culture media distributed to members of the 
class make experimental studies of the conditions favorable and 
unfavorable to the growth of bacteria. 

Tabulate results. 

3. If possible provide a smear mounting of pyorrhea germs (Rigg’s 
disease of the teeth), for examination under the high power of the 
microscope. See local dentist. 

4. Provide simple studies of yeast and molds. 

5. Require selected students to make simple illustrative exhibitions of 

sterilization and pasteurization. • 

6. Require selected students to give demonstrations with various kinds 
of disinfectants. 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


(16) 


623 


Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

1. Plant and animal germs. 

2. Plant germ diseases. 

3. Animal germ diseases. 

4. Immunization. 

References—Laboratory: 

1. Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies V. 

2. Hartman: Laboratory Manual, Section XIII. 

3. Hunter: A Civic Biology, Chapter XI, and last half of Chapter XV. 

4. Gregg: Hygiene by Experiment, Part II. 

References—Text: 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, parts of Chapter XXIII. 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, parts of Chapters IX and X. 

3. Blount: Health, Chapters III and XIV. 

THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 

Problem: 

How does the body get its food in shape to be carried about by the 
blood ? 

Laboratory Projects: 

1. Examination of a freshly prepared set of the digestive organs of a 
cat, dog, or hog, or of models of the human digestive organs. 

2. Examination of an illustrative set of human teeth, obtained from a 
dentist, with microscopic mountings of sections of teeth. 

3. Require each pupil to learn the standard test for starch and to apply 
it to ten different common food stuffs, cooked and uncooked, making 
a table of those showing much starch, those showing little starch 
and those showing no starch. 

4. Similarly make a table for ten foods showing grape sugar. 

5. Make appropriate studies of cane sugar. 

6. As a demonstration at the class hour following the laboratory work, 
let selected students make the proper test for fats or oils on several 
common foods. 

Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

1. The structure of the mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, 
and esophagus. 

2. The location and structure of the stomach, and small and large 
intestines. 


624 (17) 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


3. The location and structure of the liver (and its work), the pancreas, 
and the intestinal glands. 

4. The primary foods, that is, starch, sugars, fats, oils, proteins, salts, 
and water. 

References—Laboratory: 

1. Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies VI. 

2. Hartman: Laboratory Manual, Section IV. 

3. Hunter: A Civic Biology, Chapter XIX, first part. 

4. Gregg: Hygiene by Experiment, Study XXXII. 

References—Text: 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, parts of Chapters IX and X. 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, parts of Chapters IX and X. 

3. Blount: Health, Chapter VI. 

FOODS 

Problem: 

What is a food ? 

Laboratory Projects: 

1. By appropriate experimental studies, discover the characteristics of 
protein foodstuffs. 

2. Let each pupil apply the standard test for protein to ten common 
table foods, and tabulate the results. 

3. Make simple experimental studies of salts and water in common 
foods. 

4. Make an analysis of the food content of wheat flour by applying all 
the tests for foodstuffs previously analyzed. (Optional) 

5. As a demonstration at the class hour following the laboratory 
periods, let selected students give a demonstration of the presence 
of tannin in tea and coffee made under two or three different con¬ 
ditions. (Optional) 

6. Let selected students, by means of home-made calorimeters, put on 
a demonstration of the relative caloric values of one-sixth ounce 
quantities of protein, carbohydrate, and fat. 

Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

1. The study of condiments, extractives, and tea, coffee, and cocoa, and 
their hygienic values. 

2. Mastery of an outline of the primary food stuffs and a study of the 
caloric values of the same. 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


(18) 625 


3. The study of what constitutes a balanced ration, together with a 
study of the composition of the ordinary common or mixed foods 
and of food adulterants. 

4. One day for the study of the mechanical processes of the hygiene 
of abundant chewing and of the nature and importance of vitamins. 

References—Laboratory: 

1. Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies VI and VII. 

2. Hartman: Laboratory Manual, parts of Section III. 

3. Hunter: A Civic Biology, Chapter XIX, last part. 

4. Gregg: Hygiene by Experiment, Study XXXI. 

References—Text: . 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, Chapter IX. 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, Chapters IX and XI. 

3. Blount: Health, Chapter IV. 


DIGESTION AND NUTRITION 


Problem: 

What does the human body do with the foodstuffs taken into it? 


Laboratory Projects: 

1. Discover some of the general properties of saliva. 

2. Make an experimental study of salivary digestion. 

3. Let selected pupils start a series of digestive studies of artificial 
gastric juice, under controlled conditions, with proteins, starch, and 
fat. 

4. Let other pupils start a series, of similar experiments with artificial 
pancreatic juice. 

5. Examine the structure of the interior of a fresh kidney of a hog, 
dog or cat. Study also some crystals of urea, the important kidney 
excretion. 

6. At the class period following the laboratory work, examine and re¬ 
cord the results of the digestion experiments carried over from the 
laboratory period. 

Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

1. The processes of digestion, that is, the work of the various digestive 
enzymes and organs. 

2. Study absorption, storage, and assimilation of foods. 

3. Study the work of the liver, kidneys, lungs, and large intestine in 
excretion. 

4. By way of a resume, assemble the completed story of the passage 
thru and use in the body of starch and sugar, fats and oils, proteins, 
salts and water., 



626 (19) 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


References—Laboratory: 

1. Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies VIII. 

2. Hartman: Laboratory Manual, parts of Sec. Ill and all of V and IX.. 

3. Hunter: A Civic Biology, Chapter XX. 

4. Gregg: Hygiene by Experiment, Study XXXII. 

References—Text: 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, parts of Chapter X and all of 
Chapters XI, XII and XIII. 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, Chapters X and XI. 

3. Blount: Health, Chapter VI and Sec. 2 of Chapter II. 


SUMMARY AND REVIEW 


Problem: 

To summarize and organize subject matter thus far covered. 


Suggestions to Teacher: 

1. Written test on work done in laboratory. 

2. Written test on subject matter of text-book studies. 

3. Summarize from memory subject matter covered up to this time. 

4. Diagnose weaknesses and strength of class and of individuals as 
shown by tests (see course on professional training as to diagnostic 
use of standard tests). 


THE SUPPORTING TISSUES 


Problem: 

How are the various parts of the body held in place ? 


Laboratory Projects: 

1. Make a gross or naked-eye study of a “long” bone, a “short” bone, 
and a “flat” bone, using dry specimens of some quadruped skeleton. 

2. Make microscopic studies of longitudinal and cross sections of dry 
bone. 

3. Experimentally study the animal and mineral matter of bone reason¬ 
ably fresh. 

4. Make both a gross and a microscopic examination of specimens of 
cartilage. 

5. Make gross and microscopic studies of both yellow elastic and white 
fibrous connective tissues. Learn the nature of areolar and of 
adipose tissues. 

6. On rising in the morning apply, with a bit of cotton, a good coating 
of a glycerine solution of ferric chloride to the sole of the right foot, 
and then make a print of the foot on a page of note-book paper. 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


(20) 627 


7. In connection with the later lesson on the skeleton, study the bones 

of an actual skeleton, if possible. * 

8. In connection with the later lesson on articulation study the bones 

of an actual specimen of each of the various types of joints, if pos¬ 
sible. 

Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

1. Gross, microscopic, and cellular structure of bone, cartilage, and 
connective tissue. 

2. A day with the bones of the skeleton, learning the names of the 
more important bones. 

3. A study of immovable, movable, and mixed types of articulations. 

4. A study of the general hygiene of the skeletal system, and of first 
aid in skeletal injuries. 

References—Laboratory: 

1. Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies IX. 

2. Hartman: Laboratory Manual, first two-thirds of Section II. 

3. Hunter: A Civic Biology, Chapter XVIII. 

4. Gregg: Hygiene by Experiment, Study XLIII. 

• 

References—Text: 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, Chapter XIV. 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, Chapters V and VI. 

3. Blount: Health, Chapter XI. 

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 

Problem: 

To appreciate the complexity of movelnent and the value of vigo¬ 
rous bodily exercise. 

Laboratory Projects: 

1. Make a gross or a naked-eye study of a complete fresh muscle of a 
cat, dog, or chicken, and also of fasciculi and fibers of striated muscle. 

2. Make a microscopic examination of mountings of striated muscle 
fibers, discovering the striations and the cell nuclei. 

3. Make a gross study of some non-voluntary or plain muscle such as 
the esophagus. 

4. Examine a microscopic mounting of heart muscle. 

5. Make a microscopic examination of a mounting of plain muscle cells. 

6. Using some form of a fatigue machine, let each pupil make his own 
fatigue record for insertion in his note-book. 

7. If necessary, make a brief study of the three forms of mechanical 
levers. 


628 (21) 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

1. Properties, kinds, and general uses of muscular tissue. 

2. . Kinds of muscles as to the motions they produce. Study also the 

examples of types of levers in the body. 

3. Names and specific uses of twelve important muscles. 

4. Hygiene of exercise and posture. 

References—Laboratory: 

1. Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies X. 

2. Hartman: Laboratory Manual, last one-third of Section II. 

3. Hunter: A Civic Biology, Chapter XVIII in part. 

4. Gregg: Hygiene by Experiment, Study XLIV. 

References—Text: 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, Chapter XV. 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, Chapters VII and VIII. 

3. Blount: Health, Chapter XI. 

THE SKIN AND VENTILATION 

Problem: 

What are the functions of the skin ? What relation does ventilation 
bear to skin functions ? 

Laboratory Projects: 

1. By means of a simple microscope make an examination of the sur¬ 
face of the skin. Also have members of the class exchange thumb 
prints. 

2. Experimental studies of the reason why we perspire. 

3. A ventilation-cabinet study of the two immediate reasons for ventila¬ 
tion and a consideration of the two more remote reasons for venti¬ 
lation. 

4. Simple studies of the reasons for bathing. 

5. Let selected pupils take the necessary steps to demonstrate at the 
succeeding class period the relative heat-conductivity, water-absorp¬ 
tion, water-carrying and drying-out powers of cotton, wool, linen, 
and silk. 

Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

1. Structure of the skin, and the structure and care of hair and nails. 

2. Functions of the skin and the phenomena of heat-regulation. 

3. Hygiene of the skin, including bathing and clothing. 

4. A study of ventilation, with the reasons for it and methods of se¬ 
curing it. 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


(22) 629 


References—Laboratory: 

1. Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies XI. 

2. Hartman: Laboratory Manual, Sections VIII and X. 

3. Hunter: A Civic Biology, parts of Chapter XXII. 

4. Gregg: Hygiene by Experiment, Studies XL and XLI. 

References—Text: 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, Chapter XVI and a part of 
Chapter VII. 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, last half of Chapter II and XIV. 

3. Blount: Health, Chapter X. 

THE GENERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

Problem: 

To develop a concept of the nervous system as the “mechanism of 
human behavior”. 

Laboratory Projects: 

1. Using a prepared specimen of the brain of a cat, dog, or sheep make 
a naked eye study of the exterior and interior of the forebrain, the 
seat of thinking consciousness and of willed acts. 

2. Similarly examine the basal ganglia of the forebrain as the seat of 
feeling consciousness and of instinctive acts, and examine the mid¬ 
brain as the seat of visual and auditory reflex acts. 

3. Study the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata of the hind 
brain as the seat of many automatic and reflex acts. 

4. Study a prepared partial or complete specimen of a spinal cord, as 
the seat of many reflex acts and of conduction tracts for nerve im¬ 
pulses. 

5. Make an examination of stumps of cranial and spinal nerves as found 
on the specimen of brain and cord. 

6. If possible, observe the appearance of mountings of sections of cord, 
and brain as seen under a microscope. 

7. Discover the reaction time of the average member of the class. 

Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

1. The general structure of the nervous system. 

2. The cranial and spinal nerves and their general and particular uses. 

3. The general physiology of the nervous system. 

4. The general hygiene of the nervous system. Make the monthly 
health-progress studies. 


630 (23) 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


References—Laboratory: 

1. Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies XII. 

2. Hartman: Laboratory Manual, Section IX. 

3. Hunter: A Civic Biology, first part of Chapter XXIII. 

4. Gregg: Hygiene by Experiment, Study XLV. 

References—Text: 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, Chapters XVII, XVIII and XIX. 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, Chapters XV and XVI. 

3. Blount: Health, Chapter XII. 

SENSATION AND CERTAIN SENSES 

Problem: 

What are sensations and why do we have them ? 

Laboratory Projects: 

1. With suitable apparatus make studies of the heat, cold, pressure, 
and pain senses of the skin. 

2. Similarly make experimental studies of the nature and uses of the 
kinesthetic senses, that is, the muscle, articulatory and tendinous 
senses, as among the most important of all the senses. 

3. Make simple studies of the auditory and equilibric senses. 

4. Examine a specimen of larynx of a dog, cat, sheep or hog. 

Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

1. The production and nature of sensations. 

2. The cutaneous senses and the kinesthetic senses. 

3. The gustatory, olfactory and equilibric senses, and voice production. 

4. The sense of hearing and its hygiene. 

References—Laboratory: 

1. Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies XIII. 

2. Hartman: Laboratory Manual, parts of Section XII. 

3. Hunter: A Civic Biology, part of Chapter XXIII. 

4. Gregg: Hygiene by Experiment, Study XLVI. 

• 

References—Text: 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, Chapters XX and XXL 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, parts of Chapters XVII and XVIII. 

3. Blount: Health, Chapter XIII and Section 8 of Chapter II. 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


(24) 631 


THE SENSE OF SIGHT 

Problem: 

Why are “good eyes” so important, and how can vision be improved ? 

Laboratory Projects: 

1. Mirror examination of the structural features of the eye. 

2. Dissection of the eye of a beef, sheep, pig, dog, or cat. 

3. Studies of accommodative processes and the physiology of the eye. 

4. Studies of eye defects of individual pupils. 

5. Selected students may provide demonstrations for the following class 
period, of the effect of a double convex lens. 

Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

1. The structure of the eye. 

2. The physics of light and the physiology of vision. 

3. Lachrymation, vision correction with glasses, and general eye hy¬ 
giene. 

4. General review of all the senses. 

References—Laboratory: 

1. Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies XIV. 

2. Hartman: Laboratory Manual, last part of Section XII. 

3. Hunter: A Civic Biology, part of Chapter XXIII. 

4. Gregg: Hygiene by Experiment, Studies XIII and XLVI. 

References—Text: 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, Chapter XXII. 

0 * 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, part of Chapter XVII. 

3. Blount: Health, Chapter XIII. 

STIMULANTS, NARCOTICS AND MEDICINES 

Problem: 

Should the public be interested in the use of narcotics, stimulants 
and medicines ? 

Laboratory Projects: 

1. Simple laboratory studies of alcohol. 

2. Simple laboratory studies of tobacco, including, if possible, sphyg- 
mographic records of smokers and non-smokers. 

3. Tabulation of the alcoholic content of various patent medicines as 
determined from labels on patent medicine bottles. 

4. In similar fashion tabulate the content in patent medicines of co¬ 
caine, opium derivatives, acetanelid, chloral hydrate, and cannibas 

indica. 


632 (25) 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


Related Problems and Text-Book Studies: 

1. Alcohol as a narcotic. 

2. Tobacco as a narcotic. 

3. Patent medicines. 

4. The true function of medicines and of physicians. 

References—Laboratory: 

1. Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets, Studies XV. 

2. Towns: Habits that Handicap, sections on alcohol and tobacco. 

3. Hunter: A Civic Biology, last part of Chapter XXIII. 

4. Gregg: Hygiene by Experiment, Study XXXIV. 

References—Text: 

1. Walters: Physiology and Hygiene, see index for tobacco and alcohol. 

2. Williams: Healthful Living, see index for tobacco and alcohol. 

3. Pack: Tobacco and Human Efficiency. 

4. Blount: Health, pp. 191-2, 305-6-7. 

SCHOOL HYGIENE 

Problem: 

How does hygiene apply to school administration ? 

Related Problems: 

1. Is your class room properly lighted? What should be the propor¬ 
tionate arrangement of lighting and floor space ? 

2. Are the seats in the assembly room properly adjusted to the per¬ 
sons using them ? Is the assembly room properly lighted ? 

3. How do the black boards affect lighting in the school room ? 

4. How should a school room be cleaned? 

5. Should pencils be promiscuously used ? 

6. How many pupils in your class have weak eyes ? 

7. Is your school room properly heated ? 

8. Have you learned to keep the “decalog of good health” ? 

9. What factors in your school, if any, contribute to bad posture, poor 
eyes, colds, poor hearing, nervousness? 

10. Find faults in posture you see in the assembly room; in selected 
grade rooms. What is the cause of the fault or faults ? The reme¬ 
dy ? What will be the results if not corrected ? 

11. Find evidence of poor eyes in the high school and selected grades. 

12. Find evidence of adenoids in selected grades. 

13. Find evidence of bad teeth in selected grades. 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


(26) 633 


14. Make health survey of twelve to fifteen selected grade pupils, and 
make out reports required by the Department of Public Health. 

15. List indications of general poor health among pupils of selected 
grades. What might be the cause ? 

16. Are there any “cripples” in your school? Was the trouble caused 
by accident, by sickness, or is it congenital ? 

17. Find what evidence you can of malnutrition among pupils in your 
school. 

18. Can you find any “nervous” children in the grades? What might be 
the cause ? 

19. Are there any children in the school who are decidedly subnormal 
mentally ? 

20. List all violations of hygienic practice you have seen this week. 

Readings: 

Any portion of the texts already studied that aid in the solution of 
the problems. 

Any good text on school hygiene. 

FINAL SUMMARY 

Problem: , 

To summarize, evaluate and organize the subject matter, and to 
gain a perspective of the entire course. 

Suggestions to Teachers: 

See suggestions to teachers in the summary designed for the ninth 
week in the course. 

A DECALOG OF GOOD HEALTH 
F. M. Gregg 

1. Nutriment.—Thou shalt select thy diet on a basis of five parts of 
starchy food, one part of fat, and one of protein food; avoid thou an 
excess of purin yielding foods if thou wouldst escape many bodily ills. 

2. Feeding.—Thou shalt eat thy two or three sufficient meals under 
conditions of good cheer and shalt masticate solids until they become 
as pea soup, that thou mayest not abuse thy food canal nor eat ex¬ 
cessively. 

3. Exercise and perspiration.—Thou shalt bring into daily activity all 
thy more important muscles up to the point of vigorous sweating, 
so that thou mayest introduce into thy blood sufficient fatigue stuff 
to insure recuperative sleep, and mayest exercise thy heat-regulating 
mechanism enuf to prevent thy taking colds. 

4. Respiration.—Thou shalt give thy chest and trunk free breathing 
play, and shalt provide thyself with an abundance of wholesome air; 


634 


(27) 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


whatsoever deep breathing thou indulgest in let it be done naturally 
in connection with thy daily vigorous exercise, and not as an arti¬ 
ficial performance apart from thine other forms of exercise. 

5. Cleanliness.—Thou shalt avoid all needless contact with pathogenic 
germs, and shalt not make thy mouth a “happy hunting ground” for 
these thine enemies; that thy presence may not be offensive to thine 
associates, thou shalt take a daily bath, in the early morning only 
if thou workest amid clean surroundings, and in the evening only 
if thou toilest where thou canst not remafn immaculate. 

6. Elimination.—Thou shalt observe all the conditions that favor a 
regular and natural discharge of all waste materials from the body, 
lest thou store up poison in thy system that shall do thee harm. 

7. Medicine and drugs.—Thou shalt abstain from the unnecessary use 
of drugs generally, and when thou partakest, thou shalt do so only 
under the direction of a wise physician. If thou wouldst be sane 
thou wilt employ water alone as thy satisfying beverage, and if thou 
wouldst be wholesome, thou wilt refrain from the use of all narcotics. 

8. Clothing.—Thou shalt employ as thy clean and sufficient raiment 
only a good absorber and non-retainer of perspiration next thy body, 
such as mesh-woven cotton, and shalt adapt thine attractive and 
serviceable outer garments according to the season of the year. 

9. Relaxation.—Thou shalt give thyself daily opportunity for approx¬ 
imately eight hours of quiet slumber, and if possible a fifteen-minute 
siesta midway of thy daily tasks, that thou mayest be ever fresh and 
optimistic in all thy waking hours. 

10. Mental hygiene.—Thou shalt suppress all useless forms of nervous 
activity; thou shalt practice cheerfulness all thy days and shalt 
never hate; thou shalt not indulge in self-pity, neither shalt thou 
dream for a moment that thou art the exclusive “it”; thou shalt re¬ 
gard thyself as counting for something in this world, but shalt con¬ 
sider others that thou mayest do them good, and that thy days may 
be long and cherished in the land. 

So shalt thou be physically efficient, mentally strong, and morally 
good. 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


(28) 635 


WHERE TO GET BOOKS AND MATERIAL 
Text-Books and Manuals 

Laboratory Manuals: 

*Gregg: Laboratory Direction Sheets in Physiology and Hygiene for 
High School and Normal Training Classes, Milburn & Scott Co., 
Beatrice, Nebr., 60c per set. 

tHartman: Laboratory Manual of Human Physiology, World Book 
Company, 2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago, Ill. 

JHunter: A Civic Biology, American Book Company, Chicago, Ill. 

tfGregg: Hygiene by Experiment, World Book Co., 2126 Prairie Ave., 
Chicago, Ill. 

Text-books: 

tWalters: Physiology and Hygiene, D. C. Heath and Company, 
Chicago. 

fWilliams: Healthful Living, Macmillan Company, Chicago, Illinois. 

^Blount: Health, Allyn and Bacon, Chicago. 

♦One for each pupil or #One for each four students. 

tOne for each four members in class. 

JCopy in library for reference. 

([For Junior High School Not adequate as text for high school, but excellent sup¬ 
plementary reading. 

Reference Books and Material 

Reference Books for Teachers and Pupils: 

Allen: Civics and Health, Ginn and Company, Chicago. 

Bancroft: The Postures of School Children, The Macmillan Com¬ 
pany, Chicago, Illinois. 

Broadhurst: Home and Community Hygiene, also How We Resist 
Disease, The J. B. Lippincott Company, Chicago, Illinois. 

Fisher and Fiske: How to Live, Funk and Wagnalls, New York City. * 

Gulick: The Efficient Life, Doubleday, Page and Co., New York. 

Hoag and Terman: Health Work in the Schools, Houghton Mifflin 
Company, 2452 Prairie Avenue, Chicago, Ill. 

Martin: The Human Body, Henry Holt and Co., New York City. 

Stiles: Human Physiology, W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia. 

Terman: The Hygiene of the School Child, Houghton Mifflin Co., 
Chicago. 

Towns: Habits that Handicap, The Century Company, New York. 

Walters: Principles of Health Control, D. C. Heath and Co., Chi¬ 
cago, Illinois. 

Pack: Tobacco and Human Efficiency, The Deseret Pub. Co., Salt 
Lake City, Utah. (This book can be gotten for one dollar and 
should be in every school room in Nebraska.) 



636 


(29) 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


REFERENCE PAMPHLETS FOR PUPILS AND TEACHER* 

1. At the beginning of the course, send to the Metropolitan Life In¬ 
surance Company, New York City, for their collection of posters, 
charts, and booklets on health, which they send out free. 

2. Send also to the Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior, 
Washington, D. C., for a set of their Health Education Series. 

3. Send to the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., for 
his price list of government publications on health. Ask also for 
the latest list of Farmers’ Bulletins. 

4. Write to the Children’s Bureau, Department of Labor, Washington, 
D. C., for its list of publications and for any free pamphlets which 
it may issue. 

5. When you have received your list of Farmers’ Bulletins, prepare a 
list of the numbers and titles of the following, with any additions 
and subtractions you may find desirable: Farmers’ Bulletins Nos. 
142, 206, 375, 391, 444, 449, 450, 602, 607, 671, 717, 734, 740, 754, 
771, 824, 851, 896, 897, 926, 1069, 1097, 1110, 1136. The list of 
bulletins changes from time to time, and only a late list is depend¬ 
able. Send your checked list to your Congressman, House Office 
Building, Washington, D. C., and if his supply is not exhausted he 
will send these to you free. If his supply is exhausted you may 
have to pay five cents apiece for the bulletins, to the Superintendent 
of Documents, Washington, D. C. But sometimes the bulletins can 
be had free directly from government bureaus. 

6. Ask your State Commissioner of Health to send such posters and 
pamphlets as he has that will be of use in teaching hygiene. 

7. Write to your State Veterinarian for pamphlets on tuberculosis in 
domestic animals, and any other health pamphlets he may have. 

8. Secure the list of publications of the Tuberculosis Association of 
your state. 

9. Write for the health publications of the International Harvester 
Company, Chicago. 

10. Write for the poster pamphlet on Patent Medicines and Nostrums, 
which is issued by the American Medical Association, Chicago. 

11. Write for the list of publications of the American Posture League, 
1 Madison Avenue, New York City. 

12. Write for the list of Health Material furnished by the Womans Press, 
600 Lexington Avenue, New York City. The sets of charts on foot 


♦Gregg—Hygiene by Experiment, Appendix E. 





PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


(30) 637 


hygiene are v~ry impressive and unusual. They cost only twenty 
cents. 

13. The List of Publications of the American Social Hygiene Associa¬ 
tion* 370 Seventh Avenue, New York City, contains some invaluable 
suggestions on the subject of sex hygiene. 

14. Other agencies having worth-while health material are: the Amer¬ 
ican Child Hygiene Association, Washington, D. C., and the Child 
Health Organization of America, 370 Seventh Avenue, New York 
City. 

Free Reference Material: 

The Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., posters, charts, etc., upon re¬ 
quest. 

Farmers bulletins which you may select as bearing on health prob¬ 
lems may be secured thru your Congressman. 

Reference Lists of Inexpensive Publications: 

U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. 

Division of Publications, Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D. C. 

Children's Bureau, Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. 

Bureau of Education, Health Education Series, Department of In¬ 
terior, Washington, D. C. 

APPARATUS AND MATERIALS NEEDED* 

1. Chemical or dairy thermometers, one or more. 

2. Compound microscopes, several with two-thirds and one-sixth ob¬ 
jectives. 

3. Compound microscope, with oil immersion lens, one-twelfth objec¬ 
tive. 

4. Dissecting scissors, one for each two to four students. 

5. Fatigue apparatus, one home-made apparatus. 

6. Gas or alcohol burner, one to each two to four students. 

7. Litmus paper, one small book for each two students. 

8. Microscopic slides, several dozen. 

9. Microscopic mountings of cross-sections of human spinal cord, 
thoracic, dorsal, and lumbar, one each. 


♦Gregg—Laboratory Direction Sheets, Milburn & Scott Co. 






638 


(31) 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


10. Microscopic mountings of striated, non-striated, and heart muscle,, 
at least one each. 

11. Microscopic mountings of longitudinal and cross-sections of bone, 
one each. 

12. Microscopic sections- of cartilage and of white fibrous and yellow 
elastic connective tissue. 

13. Scalpels, one for each two to four students. 

14. Simple microscopes, several. 

15. Snellen eye-testing card, one complete card. 

16. Spirometer, one home made or machine made. 

17. Tape lines, several. 

18. Test tubes, % by 5 inches, six for each student. 

19. Tin teaspoons, one for each two to four students. 

20. Twenty-penny nails, one for each student. 

21. Ventilation cabinet, one or more. 

Chemicals 

1. Ammonia, 8 ounce bottles, one for each four students. 

2. Absorbent cotton, four ounces. 

3. Agar, one 8 ounce bottle. 

4. Cane sugar, one wide-mouthed 8 ounce bottle for each four students. 

5. Ether, one-pound can. 

6. Grape sugar, one wide-mouthed 8 ounce bottle for each four students. 

7. Gelatin, powdered, one pound. 

8. Iodine solution, one 8 ounce bottle for each four students. 

9. Glycerine solution of ferric chloride, one 8 ounce bottle. 

10. Hydrochloric acid, one 8 ounce bottle for each four students. 

11. Nitric acid, one 8 ounce bottle for each four students. 

12. Olive oil, one 8 ounce bottle only. 

13. Pepsin, four ounces of powdered preparation. 

14. Pancreatin, four ounces of powdered preparation. 


PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 


(32) 639 


15. Rennin, four ounces of powdered preparation. 

16. Starch, pulverized, one wide-mouthed 8 ounce bottle for each four 
students. 

17. Tannic acid crystals, one 8 ounce bottle. 

18. Urea crystals, one ounce bottle. 

19. Wheat flour, one wide-mouthed 8 ounce bottle for each four students. 

Biological Specimens 

1. Bones and joints, various specimens, fresh and dry. 

2. Brains, fresh and preserved specimens of a sheep, hog or beef. 

3. Cartilage and connective tissue specimens, fresh or preserved. 

4. Beef suet, molasses, and milk, small quantities. 

5. Eyes, fresh, of a sheep, calf, beef or hog, one for each two or four 
students. 

6. Eggs, several fresh. 

7. Frogs, several live ones. 

8. Food samples of various sorts. 

9. Hearts, several, preserved or fresh, of hogs, sheep, dogs or calves. 

10. Kidney of hog, calf, sheep or dog, one specimen. 

11. Lungs and heart of a sheep, dog, hog or calf, one specimen. 

12. Prunes, half a dozen, dried. 

13. Spinal cord of a dog, hog, calf, or sheep. 



PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 

H. 0. FERGUSON 

Supervisor of Music, Lincoln City Schools 


Public School Music 

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

“If America is ever to become a great nation musically, as she has 
become commercially and politically, it must come through educating 
everybody to know and love good music. 

This can only come about by beginning with the children, little 
children, at the mother’s knee and on the kindergarten circle, and so sur¬ 
rounding them with beautiful music that it becomes a vital part of edu¬ 
cation, development, and life, instead of the autumn flowering of a 
stunted, undeveloped, sterile bud, to be seen in a frantic grasping at 
‘music culture’ in later life. 

Millions of dollars are spent each season in madly rushing to con¬ 
cert and opera in a vain effort to make up for the awful deprivations of 
silent early childhood, where the proper music was seldom heard and 
never understood. Thousands of people pathetically try to ‘hear’ a sym¬ 
phony or tone poem, but only succeed in becoming vastly wearied by a 
mass of, what is to them, only incoherent cacophony. Having ears they 
are yet unable to hear because those ears missed definite training in 
childhood. 

The tone-picture falls on empty canvas, because there is no imagery 
rising out of a rich experience in full-fed imaginings of scenes, at¬ 
mospheres, moods, painted on memory’s walls by countless other former 
stimuli of pictures in tones. The language of Eliot’s Indian Bible or 
the tongues of Babel’s Tower are not more lost to the world than is the 
language of music to the unfortunate millions of Americans who have 
grown to manhood and womanhood deprived by circumstances from hear¬ 
ing it during the tender years of youth. These conditions are no longer 
tolerable in the light of the present educational awakening. 

If music is an educational factor, an individual and community as¬ 
set, then it should be given its rightful place in the curriculum of our 
lower schools and kindergartens, no less than, indeed much more than, 
in the high school and college, where it has won a foothold, precarious 
because of this very lack of foundational work in the elementary 
schools.”* 

In the rural school “No program should be considered complete which 
does not provide for a daily music period. Especially is this true of the 
school made up of several grades. The participation of the entire stu¬ 
dent body in a study common to all makes for unity and development 
of school spirit”.f 

There has never been uniformity in the teaching of public school 
music. There have been many well qualified, earnest and sincere teach- 


PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 


(6) 643 


ers of the subject whose aims and aspirations have been the same and 
who have devoted the better part of their lives to the work, but the 
methods employed have been so oddly at variance that the work has 
failed of continuity and results in many cases have not been all that 
were desired. In an effort to aid in a measure in standardizing and 
stabilizing this work and in order that the teacher with limited expe¬ 
rience in music teaching may be of maximum service, the accompanying 
course is submitted. 

Where normal training music is offered according to *4, page 21 , 
Normal Training Regulations, Course I as outlined on page 110, Ne¬ 
braska High School Manual for 1923 shall be observed. “Chorus sing¬ 
ing must include the introduction necessary for correct part singing, 
interpretation and the principles of correct voice production to be taught 
incidentally; two periods a week with program each semester requir¬ 
ing at least four hours of extra work, including the rendition of the 
program. Pupils less musical should be required to do some home prac¬ 
tice.”:!: Students taking Course I must take six weeks additional which 
shall emphasize methods. This should include a complete survey of the 
accompanying course. Each school offering and expecting credit in 
music in the normal training curriculum must provide a phonograph to¬ 
gether with suitable records for the work in Appreciation. This is a 
vital and necessary part of the course and must be observed. 

Not all can be great musicians. Many, many people could never 
learn to use satisfactorily the simplest musical instruments. Many 
others could not with any amount of training ever learn to sing, but 
every human heart and soul responds or can be taught and led to 
respond to the things which the musical world has to offer. 

For the subject matter and the organization of this course the De¬ 
partment is indebted to H. 0. Ferguson, Supervisor of Music, Lincoln 
city schools, and to him expresses its thanks and appreciation. 

A. L. B. 


♦From the preface to “Music Appreciation for Little Children’’, pages 9-10. 
tMcLaughlin and Gilchrist—Song Reader, page 1. 
tNebraska High School Manual, 1923. 



644 (7) 


PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 


OUTLINE OF COURSES 

This course is designed primarily as an outline for the use of super¬ 
visors in teaching the required normal training music course in the high 
schools. While it is pretty definite as to what is to be taught, it leaves 
the how of the teaching largely to the individual supervisor. 

Every teacher of music should bear in mind at least four great aims: 

1. To cause all children to like music. 

2. To teach them to “carry a tune” and to use their voices properly. 

3. To develop a reasonable amount of skill in music reading. 

4. To cultivate a taste for good music through contact (either by 
performance or by means of the phonograph). 

In planning this course these four points have been kept constantly 
in mind. The work is divided into four chief headings, namely: 1. Song 
singing; 2. Music reading; 3. Theory; 4. Appreciation. 

Song singing is probably the most important of all. Whether a 
teacher goes any further or not she will have done a great service to the 
children and to the community if she teaches her pupils a large number 
of good rote songs and how to use their voices properly. 

Out of the song singing experience should be developed, in a large 
measure, the other three points. Simple rote songs form the basis of 
note reading, beautiful art songs lead to keener appreciation and the 
theoretical problems are best presented and learned as they appear in the 
material used and not when taught as separate and abstract facts. 

The teacher of music will find it best to follow this outline week by 
week as given, for it presents a brief course covering the most impor¬ 
tant musical elements in a logical and concise way. 

WEEK I. 

1. Explain what is meant by a rote song. Give qualifications and 
teaching process. 

2. Give lists of rote song books and of rote songs suitable for each 
grade. 

3. Two classes of rote songs should be given: 

(a) Beautiful little gems touching child life and experience 
which will make for pleasure and appreciation. 


PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 


(8) 645 


(b) Songs of simple construction to be used later as the basis 
for teaching music reading. These are called Pattern, Type 
or Study Songs. 

4. Show how to use the phonograph as an agency for the teaching 
of rote songs where the teacher does not sing. Give list of rec- 
ords for this purpose. (Choose from educational section of cata¬ 
logues.) 

5. Bearing in mind that singing is the main thing, see to it that the 
students are given opportunity to teach rote songs to the class. 

(Note: It is of utmost importance that the students do prac¬ 
tice teaching, using either the rest of the class or a group of 
children as pupils.) 

6. Explain the necessity of keeping songs in season—as November 
—Thanksgiving songs, etc. 

WEEK II. 

Development of the Type or Pattern Songs. 

— 

1. Teach twelve to twenty type songs. Congdon Primer pp. 2-4-5- 
15-16-17-25 (bottom) 28-33-37-40-47-50-55. Other books from 
which type songs may be chosen are Progressive, Book One; Ele¬ 
anor Smith, Book One; New Educational, Book One. 

Note: The above numbers are taken from Congdon Primer 
(Revised Edition). 

2. Teach other rote songs (Suggestive list of books in bibliography). 

3. Explain work with monotones or conversational singers. Give 
calls and tone games. 

4. Give directions for seating pupils. 

5. Illustrate a model first grade lesson. 

(a) Show how to plan one. 

(b) Have pupils prepare one and give it. 

WEEK III. 


1. Teach rote to note process. 

Method (a) Giddings pp. 97 to 107. 

(b) Progressive Manual pp. 23 to 40. 

2. Theory: 

Teach pupils names of things only as they appear in the notation 
of the songs studied, as:—clef, staff, lines, spaces, bars, key sign, 
measure sign, leger lines, measure, etc. 


646 (9) 


PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 


3. Appreciation: 

Descriptive composition—“In a Clock Store.” 

*A5684 f35324. 

Teaching process—“Listening Lessons,” p. 25. 

WEEK IV. 

1. Continue presentation of notation, including application of syllables— 
phrase repetition, etc. 

Note: This is important work and the transition from ear to eye 
must be carefully made. 

2. Sight singing—Congdon pp. 7-9-10-11 and other new songs in the 
order they occur in the book. 

3. Teach a two or three part round as an aid in the introduction of 
part singing. 

4. Theory: 

(a) Continue work with naming of the symbols. 

(b) Teach meaning of the upper and the lower figure in the meter 
signature. 

(c) Explain the values of the notes and rests in different kinds of 
measure. 

5. Appreciation: 

Listening and discrimination. 

(a) “Humoreske”—Violin Solo. 

*A9454 f74163. 

(b) “The Swan”—Cello Solo. 

*A49796 f45096. 

Note: Compare violin and cello tone and the story of each com¬ 
position. 

WEEK V. 

1. Complete sight singing of Congdon Primer. 

2. Rote Songs: Gaynor—Book 1. 

“Bird’s Nest,” p. 10. 

“The Blacksmith,” p. 16. 

Note: These are particularly good for rural children as. they 
have to do with things with which they are familiar. 

3. Theory: 

Letter names of the lines and spaces of the great staff, includ¬ 
ing one leger line above and one below the great staff. 


PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 


(10) 647 


4. Appreciation: 

“Medley of American Songs.” 

*A2254 or A2269 f18361. 

Method of Presentation, “Listening Lessons,” p. 55. 

\ 

WEEK VI. 

1. Review all the Congdon songs. Do the most of them individually by 
word and by syllable. In the individual work a pupil may sing the 
entire song or just one phrase depending upon the size of the class. 

2. Rote Songs: Gaynor—Book 1. 

“Land of Nod,” p. 11. 

“Robin Redbreast,” p. 73. 

3. Theory: 

Flat keys including five flats. 

4. Appreciation: 

Concentration and reproduction of the story. 

“Narcissus”—Presentation in “Listening Lessons,” p. 51. 

*A912 f45052. 

WEEK VII. 

1. Reading work now from the “Song Reader,” pp. 9-10-11-12. 

2. Rote Songs: Gaynor—Book 1. 

“The Shoemaker,” p. 17. 

“The Leaves’ Party,” p. 64. 

3. Theory: 

Sharp keys and key signature including five sharps. 

4. Appreciation: 

Description and Study of Swiss Life. 

(a) “William Tell Overture” (The Calm). 

*A6130 f35121. 

(b) “William Tell Overture” (The Storm). 

*A6129 f35120. 

“Listening Lessons,” pp. 144-145-146. 


648 


( 11 ) 


PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 


WEEK VIII 

1. Song Reader: 

pp. 13-14-15-16. 

* 

2. Rote Songs: Gaynor—Book 1. 

“Little Yellow Dandelion,” p. 79. 

“Christmas Carol,” p. 79. 

3. Theory: 

Review all sharp and flat keys and signatures. 

4. Appreciation: 

“Songs of our Native Birds.” 

*A2832 or A2860 fl7735. 

“The Nightingale” (Flute Solo). 

*A5937 f70041. • 

Refer to “Listening Lessons”, pp. 54 and 55. 


1. Song Reader: 

pp. 17-18-19-20-21. 


WEEK IX 


2. Rote Songs: Gaynor—Book 1. 

“Thanksgiving,” p. 67. 

“Jack Frost,” p. 68. 

3. Theory: 

General review of all theory. Teach form for song analysis. 

4. Appreciation: 

1. “Indian Songs.” 

* A3059 or A3083 tl7611. 

2. “Land of the Sky Blue Water.” 

*2625 f64190. 

“Listening Lessons,” pp. 74 and 224. 


WEEK X 

1. Song Reader: 

p. 22 Numbers 85 and 86. 
p. 23 Number 89. 
p. 24 Number 91. 


PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 


(12) 649> 


p. 25 Numbers 93 and 94. 
p. 26 Number 96. 
p. 29 Number 110. 

2. Theory: 

1. Meaning of mood words, as Allegro, Andante, etc., as they ap¬ 
pear in the songs. 

2. Meanings of expression marks p., f., cres., etc., in the same way. 

3. Appreciation: 

“American Patrol/’ 

*A2237 tl6523. 

Method of presentation—“Listening Lessons,” pp. 43 and 44. 

WEEK XI 

1. Song Reader: 

p. 30 Numbers 111 and 113. 
p. 31 Numbers 114, 115 and 116. 

New problem, two equal tones to a beat, 
p. 32 Number 119. 
p. 33 Number 122. 

2. Theory: 

Scale building—major and minor. In minor teach natural, me- 
Iodic, and harmonic forms. 

3. Rote Songs: Song Reader. 

1. “Fancies,” p. 31. 

2. “Round,” p. 62, Number 194. 

4. Appreciation: 

Recognition of “subject theme” of familiar classics. 

1. “Spring Song,” Mendelssohn. 

*A2633 f16371. 

2. “Barcarolle,” Offenbach. 

*A5966 f 17311. 

“Listening Lessons,” pp. 53 and 54. 


650 


(13) 


PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 


WEEK XII 

1. Song Reader: 

1. New problem—dotted quarter followed by an eighth, 
p. 34 Numbers 123, 124, 125 and 126. 

p. 36 Number 129. 

p. 37 Numbers 130 and 131. 

2. New problem—Five, sharp Four, Five, or sol-fi-sol. 
p. 38 Numbers 132, 133 and 134. 

p. 40 Number 138. 

2. Rote Songs: Song Reader. 

1. “Nobody Man,” p. 41. 

2. “Round,” p. 62, Number 193. 

3. Theory: 

Continue song analysis and explanation of mood words, etc. 

4. Appreciation: 

Phrase analysis. 

“Amaryllis.” 

fl6474. 

Presentation—“Listening Lessons,” p. 68 and 69. 

WEEK XIII 

1. Song Reader: 

1. New problem—Flat seven. 

p. 40 Numbers 139 and 140. 
p. 42 Numbers 142 and 143. 

2. Four equal tones to a beat. 

p. 43 Numbers 145 and 146. 

3. A long and short tone to a beat. 

p. 48 Numbers 160, 161 and 162. 
p. 50 Number 166. 

2. Rote Songs: 

1. “Lass With the Delicate Air,” p. 47. 

2. “Round,” p. 63 Number 197. 


PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 


(14) 651 


3. Theory: 

Complete sharp chromatics, p. 52 Number 172; p. 55 Number 179. 

4. Appreciation: 

Review records played. See if the pupils are able to recognize 
and tell about them. 

WEEK XIV 

1. Song Reader: 

p. 58 Number 187. 

New problem—Two part music, 
p. 64 Numbers 199, 200 and 201. 
p. 66 Numbers 202, 203 and 204. 

2. Rote Songs: Song Reader. 

“America,” p. 136 (Melody only). 

“Star Spangled Banner,” p. 131 (Melody only). 

3. Theory: 

1. “The Circle of Keys,” p. 148. 

2. Definitions of technical terms—Glossary pp. 137-138. 

4. Appreciation: 

American Folk Music. 

Negro Music, 
f16453 f17663. 

*A1883 or A2072. 

“Listening Lessons,” pp. 75-76-77. 


1 . 


WEEK XV. 

Song Reader: 

Continuation of two-part work. 

p. 67 Numbers 205, 206 and 207. 

p. 68 Number 208. 

p. 69 Number 210. 

p. 70 Number 213. 

p. 71 Number 215. 

p. 72 Number 217. 


652 (15) 


PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 


2. Theory: 

Continue study of technical terms. 

Glossary, pp. 139 and 149. 

3. Appreciation: 

Descriptive. 

1. “Funeral March of a Marionette.” 

*A6052 f31081. 

“Listening Lessons,” p. 46. 

Example of two-part music. 

2. “Whispering Hope”—Duet for Soprano and Alto. 

*A78325 f87524. 

WEEK XVI 

1. Song Reader: 

New problem—Bass clef, 
p. 73 Number 220. 
p. 75 Numbers 223, 224 and 225. 
p. 76 Numbers 226 and 227. 

2. Rote Song: Song Reader. 

p. 74 Number 221. 

3. Theory: 

Glossary, p. 150. 

4. Appreciation: 

1. “Dance of the Trolls.” 

*A6110 ' fl8042. 

“Listening Lessons,” p. 50. 

2. “Minuet in G”—Beethoven. 

*A2633 f64620. 

Recognition and imitation. Have pupils hum the melody of .his 
beautiful old minuet. 

WEEK XVII 

1. Song Reader: 

p. 79 Number 233. 
p. 80 Number 236. 
p. 82 Number 239. 


PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 


(16) 


653 


p. 85 Number 247. 
p. 86 Number 249. 

New problem—Addition of tenor part, 
p. 87 Number 250. 
p. 88 Number 251. 

* p. 91 Number 252. 

p. 98 Number 255 and any others. 

2. Theory: 

Review of technical terms in the glossary. 

3. Appreciation: 

Medley—“National Songs of the Allies.” 

*A2280-A5823 f35472. 

WEEK XVIII 

A general review and test. The test should be both oral and writ¬ 
ten. At least x /4 of the credit should be obtained by actual singing, % for 
practice teaching and V 2 for acquired musical knowledge of method, tech¬ 
nical terms, etc. 

NOTES TO TEACHER 

1. A rote song is one taught by imitation. For children it should 
lie within the compass of the staff, the poem should be good and 
one whose meaning may be easily grasped. Method of presentation 
found in Giddings pp. 26 and 27. Progressive Manual pp. 12 and 13. 

2. Type songs should be chosen from the book which is to be used as 
the first reader. 

3. Type or pattern songs should be (1) Four phrases long or less. 
(2) Preferably only one stanza. (3) Simple in design. (4) Re¬ 
curring phrases, motives or figures. 

4. Monotones should be seated in the front of the room and should re¬ 
ceive daily attention. 

Use street calls and sounds of nature as: 

“Morning papers” (do-do-do-la). 

“Ding-dong bell” (do-sol-do). 

“Cuckoo, cuckoo” (mi-do-mi-do). 

Also name-calling on the octave jump, etc. 


♦Columbia Record. 
fVictor Record. 




654 


(17) 


PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 


5. All lessons should begin and end with familiar songs which the 
pupils know and love to sing. Note reading, new songs and indi¬ 
vidual work should come in the middle of the lesson. 

6. The best pupils, that is those with the best ears, should occupy the 
rear seats. 

7. Most of the new songs should be read first with syllables, pupils 
tapping the rhythm, and then with words, books tilted up. 

8. Rounds should be taught by rote the same as a one-part song. Later 
develop the round idea. They help children gain independence. Be¬ 
fore they are able to sing parts they must be able to sing a part 
while listening to an altogether different part. 

9. The story of the “Humoreske” by Dvorak is about a court jester.. 
This composition contains two ideas. The first is the jolly, jerky 
part representing the play of the jester; the second theme tells of 
the sadness in his life or his real self. The composition ends with 
the happy theme significant of how he has to cover his own feel¬ 
ings in order to entertain his king. See if the pupils can sense the 
change of mood. 

The melody of the “Swan” is smooth, depicting a beautiful white 
swan on a placid lake. The rise and fall of the melody represents 
the raising and lowering of the swan’s head. The accompaniment 
sounds like ripples against the shore. 

10. In teaching flat keys use the idea of the last flat to the right being 
four or “fa” and count down four or up five to find “do”. 

11. In teaching sharp keys, the last sharp is seven or “ti”; count up 
one or down seven to find “do”. 

12. In connection with the record “Songs of Our Native Birds”, pictures 
should be shown. This is a great aid to Nature Study. Use the 
flute solo, “The Nightingale”, in connection. Tell of the flute, also 
of the nightingale and its habits. 

13. The following order is suggested for the analysis of songs; (1) Key, 

(2) Key signature, (3) Meter signature, (4) Location of “do”, (5) 
the alto begins on (syllable names of first tone), (6) The soprano 
begins on (same). 

In part songs always begin with the lowest part. 

14. Indian music correlates well with Indian life and stories. The theme 
for the “Land of the Sky Blue Water” was collected by Alice Fletch¬ 
er from the Omaha Indians in Thurston county, Nebraska. The ac¬ 
tual Indian melodies are not so beautiful to us as is this selection 
but they are just as beautiful to the Indians. 


PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 


(18) 655 


15. Teach nothing in advance of its application. When you come to the 
word “Allegro” on p. 22 of the Song Reader, develop its meaning 
from the way the children think a song about “scampering leaves” 
should be sung. 

16. Beautiful songs like “Evening” p. 23, “Lullaby” p. 24, “The Violet” 
p. 29 should be sung over and over and kept as a part of a perma¬ 
nent repertoire. 

17. Scale building and all the theory work from the glossary is taken up 
for the teacher and should not be taught to pupils in the graded or 
rural schools. All normal training pupils and prospective teachers 
should know these things thoroughly. 

18. Pupils should know the names of standard compositions like 
“Humoreske”, “Spring Song”, etc., when they hear them, the same 
as they should recognize famous paintings and poems. 

19. It is the right of every child to know and to be able to sing our 
National and Patriotic songs, also the folk songs of Stephen Collins 
Foster. Be sure they are taught. 

20. The teacher should be able to organize and direct community sing¬ 
ing—Best book, “Twice 55 Community Songs”, published by C. C. 
Birchard and Co., Boston, Mass. 


BIBLIOGRAHY 

Rote Song Books: 

#1. “Songs of the Child World”—Gaynor, Book One, published by 
John Church Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. f 

2. “Songs of the Child World”—Gaynor, Book Two, published by 
John Church Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. 

3. Progressive Manual No. 1—Silver, Burdette & Co. 

4. “Nature Lyrics”—Schneider—Willis Music Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. 

5. “First Year Music”—Dann—American Book Co. 

6. “Art Song Cycles”—Meissner—Silver, Burdette & Co. 

Type Song Books: 

$1. Congdon Primer—C. H. Congdon, Chicago, Ill. 

2. Progressive Book 1—Silver, Burdette & Co. 

3. Eleanor Smith Book 1—American Book Co. 

4. “First Year Music”—Dann—American Book Company. 




656 (19) 


PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC 


Readers For Rural Schools: 

$1. Song Reader—McLaughlin and Gilchrist—Ginn and Co. 

2. Progressive Series—One Book Course—Silver, Burdette & Co. 

3. Aiken’s One Book Course—American Book Co. 

Method Books: 

§1. Grade School Music Teaching—Giddings—C. H. Congdon, Chi¬ 
cago. 

2. Progressive Book 1—Silver, Burdette & Co. 

3. School Music Teaching—Gherkins—C. C. Birchard and Co., Bos¬ 
ton, Mass. 

Note: This is a new book with fine directions and suggestions 
regarding high school music, appreciation, applied music, com¬ 


munity music, etc. 


4. The Language of Music—Dorrett—World Book Company, Chi¬ 


cago. 


5. School Bands and Orchestras—Woods—Oliver Ditson Co. 

Note: A fine book dealing with organization and conducting in¬ 
strumental instruction and bands and orchestras. 

Appreciation: 

§1. “Listening Lessons”—Fryberger—Silver, Burdette & Co. 

§2. “Appreciation for Little Children”—Victor Talking Machine Co., 
Camden, N. J. 

Note: This is a new book adapted to teaching the appreciation 
of music to kindergarten, First, Second and Third Grades. 

3. The Lure of Music—Harper Brothers, New York. 

These songs are suggested for use in rural schools, and may be pre¬ 
sented in the order named during the nine school months. 

The songs are especially adapted to upper grades, but will be foun^ 
practicable in ungraded rooms. Nos. 3-5-6 may be obtained of Ginn and 
Co., Chicago. Nos. 1-2-4-7-8-9 may be ordered from Birchard and Ck>., 
Boston, Mass. 


1 The Barefoot Boy 


Clayton Johns 

Senza 

Verdi 

Gounod 

Watson 

Lohr 

Mendelssohn 

Rubenstein 

Lalome 




2 A Merry Life 

3 Anvil Chorus 
Nazareth 



5 Anchored 


8 Voices of the Woods 

9 The Dancers 


6 Swing Song 

7 Spring Song 


tOne copy for each member of class. 

§One copy in library for reference. 

JOne copy for each two members of class. 














































